We demonstrated simultaneous intrinsic optical signal imaging (IOSI) and laser speckle contrast imaging (LSCI) using coherence modulation of vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) diodes. The unique properties of VCSELs were exploited to deliver rapidly switched coherent and non-coherent illumination suitable for high resolution LSCI and IOSI, respectively. Utilizing three near-infrared VCSELs we were able to map changes in cortical blood oxygenation and flow during ischemia. Additionally, the subtle reflectance changes associated with cortical spreading depression were imaged using non-coherent VCSEL illumination. We are currently using two-photon laser-scanning microscopy to quantify the accuracy of LSCI and IOSI implementations. The small size and efficiency of VCSELs and modern photo diodes, makes the development of implantable dual-mode imaging devices feasible. Devices capable of chronic imaging of cortical hemodynamics could significantly enhance the range of studies available to neuroscientists and significantly aid clinicians postoperatively. The research presented in this thesis significantly furthers this objective.

We demonstrated simultaneous intrinsic optical signal imaging (IOSI) and laser speckle contrast imaging (LSCI) using coherence modulation of vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) diodes. The unique properties of VCSELs were exploited to deliver rapidly switched coherent and non-coherent illumination suitable for high resolution LSCI and IOSI, respectively. Utilizing three near-infrared VCSELs we were able to map changes in cortical blood oxygenation and flow during ischemia. Additionally, the subtle reflectance changes associated with cortical spreading depression were imaged using non-coherent VCSEL illumination. We are currently using two-photon laser-scanning microscopy to quantify the accuracy of LSCI and IOSI implementations. The small size and efficiency of VCSELs and modern photo diodes, makes the development of implantable dual-mode imaging devices feasible. Devices capable of chronic imaging of cortical hemodynamics could significantly enhance the range of studies available to neuroscientists and significantly aid clinicians postoperatively. The research presented in this thesis significantly furthers this objective.

<p>Breast conserving surgery (BCS) is a common treatment option for breast cancer patients. The goal of BCS is to remove the entire tumor from the breast while preserving as much normal tissue as possible for a better cosmetic outcome after surgery. Specifically, the excised specimen must have at least 2 mm of normal tissue surrounding the diseased mass. Unfortunately, a staggering 20-70% of patients undergoing BCS require repeated surgeries due to the incomplete removal of the tumor diagnosed post-operatively. Due to these high re-excision rates as well as limited post-operative histopathological sampling of the tumor specimen, there is an unmet clinical need for margin assessment. Quantitative diffuse reflectance spectral imaging has previously been explored as a promising, method for providing real-time visual maps of tissue composition to help surgeons determine breast tumor margins to ensure the complete removal of the disease during breast conserving surgery. We have leveraged the underlying sources of contrast in breast tissue, specifically total hemoglobin content, beta-carotene content, and tissue scattering, and developed various fiber optics based spectral imaging systems for this clinical application. Combined with a fast inverse Monte Carlo model of reflectance, previous studies have shown that this technology may be able to decrease re-excision rates for BCS. However, these systems, which all consist of a broadband source, fiber optics probes, an imaging spectrograph and a CCD, have severe limitations in system footprint, tumor area coverage, and speed for acquisition and analysis. The fiber based spectral imaging systems are not scalable to smaller designs that cover a large surveillance area at a very fast speed, which ultimately makes them impractical for use in the clinical environment. The objective of this dissertation was to design, develop, test, and show clinical feasibility of a novel wide field spectral imaging system that utilizes the same scientific principles of previously developed fiber optics based imaging systems, but improves upon the technical issues, such as size, complexity, and speed,to meet the demands of the intra-operative setting. </p><p>First, our simple re-design of the system completely eliminated the need for an imaging spectrograph and CCD by replacing them with an array of custom annular photodiodes. The geometry of the photodiodes were designed with the goal of minimizing optical crosstalk, maximizing SNR, and achieving the appropriate tissue sensing depth of up to 2 mm for tumor margin assessment. Without the imaging spectrograph and CCD, the system requires discrete wavelengths of light to launch into the tissue sample. A wavelength selection method that combines an inverse Monte Carlo model and a genetic algorithm was developed in order to optimize the wavelength choices specifically for the underlying breast tissue optical contrast. The final system design consisted of a broadband source with an 8-slot filter wheel containing the optimized set of wavelength choices, an optical light guide and quartz light delivery tube to send the 8 wavelengths of light in free space through the back apertures of each annular photodiode in the imaging array, an 8-channel integrating transimpedance amplifier circuit with a switch box and data acquisition card to collect the reflectance signal, and a laptop computer that controls all the components and analyzes the data.</p><p>This newly designed wide field spectral imaging system was tested in tissue-mimicking liquid phantoms and achieved comparable performance to previous clinically-validated fiber optics based systems in its ability to extract optical properties with high accuracy. The system was also tested in various biological samples, including a murine tumor model, porcine tissue, and human breast tissue, for the direct comparison with its fiber optics based counterparts. The photodiode based imaging system achieved comparable or better SNR, comparable extractions of optical properties extractions for all tissue types, and feasible improvements in speed and coverage for future iterations. We show proof of concept in performing fast, wide field spectral imaging with a simple, inexpensive design. With a reduction in size, cost, number of wavelengths used, and overall complexity, the system described by this dissertation allows for a more seamless scaling to higher pixel number and density in future iterations of the technology, which will help make this a clinically translatable tool for breast tumor margin assessment.</p> / Dissertation

Fluorescence molecular imaging has been triggering interest in the scientific community for the last decade due to its great potential for improved early cancer detection and image-guided treatment. Semiconductor nanoparticles, also known as quantum dots, have been identified as potential contrast agents for molecular imaging, but there is a lack of quantitative contrast optimization studies that would enable precise and robust dosimetry calculations. These calculations are crucial to determine the feasibility, risk and cost of any contrast-enhanced clinical imaging procedure. This thesis presents a first attempt at developing a quantitative dosimetry framework for quantum dot-based contrast-enhanced fluorescence molecular imaging, by combining novel experimental methods and validated mathematical models. Three studies were completed to develop the dosimetry framework. In the first study, we design a novel homogenized optical tissue phantom approach to investigate with precision the effects of various photophysical parameters, such as the excitation and emission wavelengths, tissue absorption and scattering coefficient spectra, tissue autofluorescence spectra, target fluorescence spectra and target depth, on the detected contrast. In the second study, we use the approach to investigate the influence of tissue optical absorption and scattering on contrast behavior for various ex vivo tissue samples, and develop performance metrics to quantify the optimization results. In the third study, we perform vascular fluorescence contrast-enhanced imaging in the dorsal skinfold window chamber mouse model to investigate the effects of pharmacokinetics, blood absorption, vessel diameter and injected dose on the detected contrast. We also describe the relationship between the injected volume and vascular contrast, and transfer the performance metrics developed previously to estimate the minimum injection dose under various conditions. These studies are expected to serve as a stepping stone to further develop contrast optimization and dosimetry models for the emerging field of fluorescence molecular imaging.

Fluorescence molecular imaging has been triggering interest in the scientific community for the last decade due to its great potential for improved early cancer detection and image-guided treatment. Semiconductor nanoparticles, also known as quantum dots, have been identified as potential contrast agents for molecular imaging, but there is a lack of quantitative contrast optimization studies that would enable precise and robust dosimetry calculations. These calculations are crucial to determine the feasibility, risk and cost of any contrast-enhanced clinical imaging procedure. This thesis presents a first attempt at developing a quantitative dosimetry framework for quantum dot-based contrast-enhanced fluorescence molecular imaging, by combining novel experimental methods and validated mathematical models. Three studies were completed to develop the dosimetry framework. In the first study, we design a novel homogenized optical tissue phantom approach to investigate with precision the effects of various photophysical parameters, such as the excitation and emission wavelengths, tissue absorption and scattering coefficient spectra, tissue autofluorescence spectra, target fluorescence spectra and target depth, on the detected contrast. In the second study, we use the approach to investigate the influence of tissue optical absorption and scattering on contrast behavior for various ex vivo tissue samples, and develop performance metrics to quantify the optimization results. In the third study, we perform vascular fluorescence contrast-enhanced imaging in the dorsal skinfold window chamber mouse model to investigate the effects of pharmacokinetics, blood absorption, vessel diameter and injected dose on the detected contrast. We also describe the relationship between the injected volume and vascular contrast, and transfer the performance metrics developed previously to estimate the minimum injection dose under various conditions. These studies are expected to serve as a stepping stone to further develop contrast optimization and dosimetry models for the emerging field of fluorescence molecular imaging.

<p>The success of gene medicine ultimately depends on the efficient intracellular delivery and sustained expression of nucleic acid therapeutics, yet nonviral gene delivery performed with cationic polymer carriers has been chronically hindered by the slow release of nucleic acid payloads at their targets, as well as the transient nature of exogenous transgene expression. Polymer-nucleic acid nanocomplexes made with passive gene carriers using traditional bulk methods have proven inadequate for most translational applications. The objective of this work is to improve nonviral gene delivery through the selection, formulation, and application of improved nanoparticles. </p><p> After screening a number of number of cationic polymer delivery systems ranging from natural to synthetic, high molecular weight to low, binary and ternary, we identified a bioreducible linear poly(amido amine) able to give sustained, robust expression of both DNA and RNA through serial dosing. We next turned our attention to the process of nanocomplex assembly. Traditional assembly via bulk mixing is poorly controlled, and the poor quality of these nanocomplexes is a significant impediment to both the establishment of robust structure-function relationships and the advancement of nonviral gene delivery. So, we developed an emulsion-based microfluidic nanomanufacturing platform to better control the self-assembly process, and thus the physical properties of nanocomplexes. Confined mixing within picoliter droplets generates self-assembled nanocomplexes that are more uniform and more effective. This microfluidic nanomanufacturing approach possesses broad utility in the production of polymer-nucleic acid nanocomplexes; we demonstrated that its benefits extend to multiple gene carriers, a range of nucleic acid payloads, and translationally relevant cell types. Then, we applied the improved nanomanufactured particles to begin to address an unmet clinical need, namely the lack of a safe and ethical source of cells to treat neurodegenerative diseases. Nonviral cellular reprogramming strategies eliminate the integration of viral DNA sequences and represent a potentially safer alternative to viral transdifferentiation methods to generate therapeutic cells. Using nanomanufactured polymer-nucleic acid nanocomplexes, we improved the efficiency of the nonviral cellular reprogramming of fibroblasts directly to functional induced neuronal cells. </p><p> Nonviral gene therapy will continue to demand more sophisticated delivery systems to continue to progress. Microfluidic nanomanufacturing represents a reproducible and scalable platform to synthesize more uniform and effective nanocomplexes that not only improves their functional performance, but may also help establish clearer structure-function relationships that will inform future gene carrier design. Complementing the innovative chemical and biological approaches to create multifunctional nanoparticles, this study indicates that microfluidic nanomanufacturing can serve as a parallel physical strategy to both optimize the properties of polymer-nucleic acid nanocomplexes and improve their performance in applications with important clinical implications.</p> / Dissertation

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Chemistry / Stefan Bossmann / Numerous Proteases are implicated in cancer initiation, survival, and progression. Therefore, it is important to diagnose the levels of protease expression by tumors and surrounding tissues, which are reflected in blood and tissue samples. Nanoplatforms for Cathepsin(CTS) B and L, matrix metalloproteinases(MMP) 1, 2, 3, 7, 9, 13 and urokinase plasminogen activator(uPA) detection have been synthesized. Nanoplatforms feature a central dopamine-coated core/shell Fe/Fe₃O₄ nanoparticle. Cyanine 5.5 is permanently tethered to the dopamine ligands via amide bonds. Tetrakis(4-carboxy-phenyl)porphyrin (TCPP) is co-tethered to Fe/Fe₃O₄/dopamine by means of protease consensus sequences. In the presence of a relevant protease sequence, it is cleaved, releasing TCPP from the nanoplatform. In contrast, Cy 5.5 will remain permanently tethered to the nanoparticle. Therefore, an extensive increase of emission intensity of the fluorescence signal from TCPP is observed. This permits the detection of the activity of proteases at femtomolar levels in biospecimens by fluorescence spectroscopy. 46 breast cancer and 20 healthy human blood serum samples were analyzed. Based on the expression pattern of analyzed enzymes, human breast cancer can be detected at stage I. By monitoring CTS B and L stage 0 detection may be achieved. This study demonstrates the feasibility of minimally invasive successful early cancer diagnosis. Immunosuppression is one of the hallmarks of aggressive cancers. Arginase is overexpressed in cancer patients, resulting in systemic immunosuppression. Two nanoplatforms for arginase detection have been synthesized. Both feature a central dopamine-coated core/shell Fe/Fe₃O₄ nanoparticle to which cyanine 7.0 or cyanine 7.5 is tethered via amide bonds. In both nanoplatforms, cyanine 5.5 is linked to the N-terminal of the peptide sequence GRRRRRRRG. Arginine (R) reacts to ornithine (O) in the presence of arginase. According to our results obtained from fluorescence spectroscopy, the oligopeptides GRRRRRRRG and GOOOOOOOG differ in their chain dynamics. In the presence of arginase, and dependent on arginase activity, fluorescence increase of both nanoplatforms is observed, which is an indication that proton-transfer quenching decreases when arginine gets converted to ornithine. The novel assays permit the detection of active arginase within an hour. Additionally, Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) is observed in nanoplatforms featuring cy 5.5/7.0 pairs, resulting in picomolar detection limits. This is the first example of a “post-translational” enzyme sensor, in which the tether is subjected to chemical transformations of the aminoacid side chains and not cleaved by an enzyme, resulting in the modified mobility of the tether. The nanoplatforms do not show a fluorescence increase when incubated with NO-reductase, an enzyme indicative of immunoactivation, which also uses arginase as substrate. Copper dependent inhibitory activity of 10000 compound library has been studied against of Staphylococcus aureus. 53 copper- dependent hit molecules were recognized featuring extended thiourea core structure with NNSN motif. NMR titrations, UV/Vis studies have been performed for characterization of metal complexation and structure modeling. Chemoinformatic meta-analysis of the ChEMBL chemical database confirmed the NNSNs as an unrecognized staphylococcal inhibitor, in spite of other compound groups in chemical screening libraries. This will lead to the development of novel class of antibacterial agents against Staphylococcus aureus.

Le but de cette thèse est la synthèse, l’optimisation et la fonctionnalisation de nanoparticules coeur-coquille organique@inorganique qui constituent une nouvelle classe de nanotraceurs pour l’imagerie profonde à deux photons de la vascularisation des tumeurs. Ces NPs cœur-coquille qui contiennent un cœur nanocristallin organique (ca 40-50 nm) enrobé d’une coquille de silice sont synthétisées en utilisant une méthode de séchage d’aérosol originale développée dans notre groupe. Le procédé est basé sur la nucléation et la croissance confinées d’un nanocristal organique ayant lieu simultanément avec la formation d’une croûte de silice par le séchage rapide de gouttelettes contenant des oligomères de silice un colorant organique et du solvant dans un flux d’air à 150-200 °C. Ce procédé en une étape est rendu possible grâce au contrôle à la fois de la chimie sol-gel (polycondensation) et du procédé de nanocristallisation qui ont lieu simultanément. Les précurseurs silicatés sont des alcoxydes de silicium : le TMOS (tetraméthoxysilane) et le TMSE (bis(triméthoxysilyl)éthane) choisis pour formés la coquille d’organosilice. De plus, l’organosilane AzPTES ((3-azidopropyl)triéthoxysilane) est utilisé pour inclure des fonctions azoture aux NPs pour une fonctionnalisation ultérieure avec des fragments organiques contenant des fragments alcyne par CuAAC (cycoaddition alcyne-azoture catalysée au cuivre). Les colorants organiques constituant le cœur organique sont non commerciaux et conçus pour fluorescer de façon très brillante à l’état solide sous excitation biphotonique dans le proche infra-rouge (fenêtre de transparence biologique). Ils ont en outre les propriétés physico-chimiques appropriées pour permettre leur nanocristallisation. Des NPs sphériques et sans défaut ont été obtenues, qui ont pu être mises en suspension colloïdale dans l’eau après dissolution basique partielle des coquilles puis neutralisation à pH physiologique.Afin de circuler de façon prolongée dans le flux sanguin pour permettre l’utilisation de ces NPs comme traceurs fluorescents, les NPs synthétisées ont été dérivatisées avec différentes fonctions pour augmenter leur stabilité colloïdale par des effets de charge ou stériques. L’influence de la fonctionnalisation a été étudiée en utilisant différentes techniques de caractérisation comme la spectroscopie de fluorescence, la diffusion dynamique de la lumière ou le potentiel zêta en conditions physiologiques. La fonctionnalisation par différents types de PEG (polyéthylène glycol) de différentes longueurs et modifiés par des fonctions alcyne a été effectuée. La spectroscopie infrarouge a permis de montrer le succès de la fonctionnalisation grâce à la diminution de l’intensité de la bande azoture et à l’apparition de vibrations CH. Les suspensions colloïdales de NPs fonctionnalisées par du PEG5000 ont été traitées dans l’eau ou dans du fluide biologique simulé, à 25 ou 37 °C. Dans tous les cas, la DLS a montré une bonne stabilité avec des diamètres moyens inférieurs à 200 nm dans tous les cas. La spectroscopie de fluorescence avant et après fonctionnalisation montre des brillances comparables ce qui suggère l’absence de blanchiment dans les conditions de fonctionnalisation. Les suspensions colloïdales une fois fonctionnalisées montrent une perte d’intensité de moins de 10% sur 8 h, ce qui suggère une stabilité colloïdale satisfaisante.L’interaction de ces NPs cœur-coquille avec différentes protéines sanguines a aussi été étudiée par DLS, et une très faible agrégation en présence de doses élevées de protéines a été montrée. Des tests d’imagerie par fluorescence à deux photons sur souris sont en cours. / The aim of this work is the synthesis, optimization and functionalization of organic@inorganic core-shell nanoparticles (NPs), which constitute a novel class of nanoparticulate tracers, to be used for two-photon deep tissue imaging of tumor vascularization. These core-shell NPs, which comprise an organic dye nanocrystal core (ca 40-50 nm) surrounded by a silicate crust, are synthesized using an original spray-drying method developed in our group. This process is based on the confined nucleation and growth of an organic nanocrystal concomitantly with the formation of a silicate crust by fast drying of sprayed droplets containing silicate oligomers, organic dye and solvent under an air flux at 150-200 °C. This one-step synthesis is made possible thanks to the control of both the sol-gel chemistry (polycondensation) and the nanocrystallization process, which occur simultaneously. Alkoxide precursors, TMOS (tetramethoxysilane) and TMSE (1.2-bis(trimethoxysilyl)ethane) are chosen to form the silicate shell. Additionally, an organosilane, (3-azidopropyl) triethoxysilane (AzPTES), is used to impart an azide functionality to the NPs for further functionalization with alkyne-modified moieties using the Cu(I)-catalyzed 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of organic azides to alkynes (CuAAC). The organic dyes for the nanocrystalline core are non-commercial and designed to exhibit high fluorescence intensity in the solid state under two-photon excitation in the near infrared (biological window) and the appropriate physico-chemical properties to enable their nanocrystallization. Spherical defect-free NPs were obtained. Colloidal NP suspensions were obtained after a basic partial dissolution of the shells of the NPs followed by acidic neutralization to pH 7.4, to match the pH of physiological media.In order to provide long circulation time of the NPs in the bloodstream to enable the use of these NPs as tracers for deep-tissue imaging, the synthesized NPs were derivatized with different moieties to improve their colloidal stability by charge/steric stabilization. The effects of the functionalization were studied using different characterization tools such as fluorescence spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering (DLS) and zeta potential under physiological conditions.Functionalization with different forms of alkyne-modified polyethylene glycol (PEG), differing in chain length and structure was done using CuAAC, to render them furtive and increase their circulation time in the bloodstream. The functionalized NPs, when compared with the initial core shell NPs (prior to functionalization) using IR spectroscopy, showed positive results, with reduction in the azide band intensity and appearance of bands corresponding to the C-H bonds of the PEG in the functionalized NPs. DLS performed on colloidal suspensions of the core-shell NPs functionalized with a long-chain (Mn :5000) PEG in two media, (a) water and (b) Simulated body fluid (SBF) solution, each tested at two different temperatures (i) 25 °C and (ii) 37 °C resulted in size distributions centered at less than 200 nm in all four cases, thereby indicating stability of the functionalized core-shell NP suspensions under physiological conditions. Fluorescence spectroscopy of the NP suspensions before and after functionalization also exhibited good results, with comparable brightness after functionalization, suggesting that no quenching occurred in the presence of Cu salts. The colloidal suspensions were found to have lost less than 10 % of the fluorescence signal, suggesting colloidal stability.The interactions of these core-shell NPs with different plasma proteins were also investigated, with minimal aggregation in the presence of high concentrations of proteins. Two-photon fluorescence imaging tests in mice are underway. In conclusion, bright, red-emitting core-shell NPs have been produced, which are promising for use in bio-imaging.

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