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Background: Biomonitoring of pesticides is an objective measure of short-term pesticide exposure as it measures possible exposure in the human body. Current evidence on the relationship between demographic, socio-economic and pesticide exposure risk factors and urinary levels of organophosphate (OP) pesticide metabolites among children is generally incomplete and conflicting in some cases. There is therefore a need for further research. Objectives: This study investigated the relationship between socio-economic, demographic and reported pesticide exposure related activities and characteristics in relation to urinary levels of three dialkyl phosphate (DAP) metabolites (diethyl phosphate (DEP), dimethyl phosphate (DMP) and dimethyl triphosphate (DMTP)) among boys living in the rural areas of the Western Cape, South Africa. Methods: This was an analysis of data collected during a cross- sectional study of 183 boys from three agricultural intense areas in the Western Cape of South Africa between April 2007 and March 2008. Measurements included a questionnaire on demographic, socio-economic and pesticide exposure risk factors and analysis of spot urine samples for DAP metabolites. Results: Most of the boys (70%) lived on farms with a median age of 12 years (range: 5.0 - 19.5 years). The median concentrations of DAP, DEP, DMP and DMTP were 68.3 ng/ml (IQR= 27.9; 129.5), 5.5 ng/ml, 32.6 ng/ml and 16.7 ng/ml, respectively. The sum of the three DAP levels wasinversely associated with age. Children older than 14 years had less DAP levels (β = -68.1; 95% CI: -136.8,0.6) than children 9 years and younger. DAP levels also varied significantly with residential area, with the levels highest in Grabouw (apple farming), followed by Hex River Valley (grape farming) (β= -52.1; 95% CI: -97.9, -6.3) then Piketberg (wheat farming) (β= -54.2; 95% CI:-98.8, -9.7). Other weaker and non-significant associations with increased DAP levels were found with increased household income, member of household work with pesticides, living on a farm, drinking water from an open water source and eating crops from the vineyard and or garden. Conclusion: The study found younger age and living in and around an apple and grape farms, to be associated with increased urinary DAP concentrations among the school children provide evidence that younger age and residential area can be associated with increased urinary DAP concentrations among boys. Additionally, there are other household and behavioural characteristics that are associated with elevated urinary DAP levels. Further studies with larger sample sizes and longitudinal designs to improve the statistical power and the associations found are recommended. The study provided more insight to incomplete and inconclusive evidence of previous studies.

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This study investigates why African-Caribbean boys continue to underachieve in schools. It is based on an extensive study of one Inner London school and has also involved a thorough review of the existing literature about why this particular group of students do not fulfil their potential. The inspiration for this study has been the work of Bernard Coard (1971) who wrote influentially about how the first generation of West Indian children was branded as ‘Educationally Subnormal’ by the British school system. Over thirty years later, the failure of African-Caribbean boys continues to be an alarming phenomenon, despite years of multi-culturalism and education for ‘diversity’. One of the arguments of my study is that African-Caribbean boys can even become ‘hidden’ amongst much larger groups of students who have English as an Additional Language (EAL) and who as a result, often receive extensive additional support. British schools have changed since the time that Coard (1971) was writing, but as my study demonstrates African-Caribbean boys are still likely to be over represented in the various Behaviour or Learning Support Units. I have also discovered that, far fewer African-Caribbean boys in the school investigated are likely to go on to the sixth form in comparison to students from other backgrounds. Even though there have been many studies about race and education, far fewer researchers have tried to ‘hear it from the boys’. I have carried out extensive research at school level amongst the boys and their teachers. As well as conducting an Institutional Focus Study of the school in question. I have argued that, whilst other groups such as white working class boys have been hostile to school, on the contrary, most of the boys in my study wanted to learn or saw the importance of obtaining qualifications in order to improve their chances in life. African-Caribbean boys are not ‘their own worst enemies’, but the reasons for their underachievement are complex, being the result of a range of factors. As I am a practitioner, I have concluded my study with some practical proposals for change which I hope will make a difference to the lives of these boys.

Parents play a vital role in the education of their children. Apart from providing material resources, they are also responsible for enhancing what is learnt at school and providing relevant background information about their children that is helpful to teachers. This research project focuses on engaging fathers in the education of their sons. It explores the roles played by fathers in the education of their sons and some of the barriers they encounter in trying to work with schools. For various reasons, fewer fathers engage in the education of their children yet they can play a vital role. Although the contribution to education by mothers cannot be ignored, this thesis contributes new knowledge to the unique influence that fathers have in the education of their sons. This enquiry is based on a qualitative case study carried out on a specialist secondary school in the UK. The participatory action research case study methodology adopted in this PhD thesis provided an opportunity to make an in-depth study of the phenomena. A triangular approach was employed in which the views of the fathers, boys and teachers were considered through interviews, document analysis and observations. The enquiry used a participatory action research approach in which participants were involved in the identification of the problem, implementation of an action and reflection of the whole process. Fathers, boys and teachers in the school participated in a series of meetings to suggest ways in which the school could improve the engagement of fathers. The research helped the school to formulate policy that improved the achievement of boys through the engagement of their fathers. Management at the school has taken on board most of the recommendations and is now in the process of improving and strengthening relationships with parents and fathers in particular. The school has employed a family liaison officer responsible for working with parents and advising staff on how to engage better with fathers. This research project has been driven by my own experiences as a father, teacher and son. It contributes new knowledge in the form of a "Father Engagement Model" designed for the school to engage and maintain relations with more fathers. The style of writing adopted in this thesis has been aimed at engaging a wide range of readers including the fathers and their sons of various reading levels.

The purpose of this study is to gather and describe case studies of 'struggling' teenage boys, focusing on their identities, which are mediated by the discursive practices associated with school mathematics and other activities. The sociocultural model of identity unites an individual’s psychodynamic continuity with the roles and positions that emerge from his/her social interactions. The setting for the investigation is a small single-sex, non-traditional secondary school, in which the sample is seven boys, ages sixteen to eighteen, who have lost interest in the academic mainstream. Qualitative data were collected on individual boys, and then matched in a table to the theoretical framework. The study raised five issues about identity, struggling teenage boys, and school mathematics. To negotiate the dialectic of opposing identity norms, struggling teenage boys employed identities as expressive tools that held desirable positions for them in school mathematics. In the organization of multiple identities, salience depended upon the intrinsic and extrinsic gratification associated with knowledge of mathematics. Positive mathematical identities clustered with compatible social identities that were also supported by these rewards. The sociohistorical availability of identities increased in nontraditional mathematics courses that provided the boys with opportunities to enact positive roles. Many of the boys communicated positive attitudes towards school mathematics in relation to their future career goals. Though they may have struggled, they expected to achieve conventional success in the adult world. The issue of identity and emotions was illustrated by the shame and mistrust that accompanied the loss of a former identity such as a “gifted” level in school mathematics. For some struggling teenage boys, mistrustfulness was evident in their discussions about money. They expressed an affinity for simple arithmetic, which they could easily master with repetitive practice. Implications for teaching include cultivating future-oriented identities, incorporating 'money themes, and offering customized courses.

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