Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) stands as a multifaceted autoimmune disorder, characterized by a spectrum of clinical manifestations and the generation of autoantibodies against self-antigens. Our focus was on the pivotal role of B cells in the development of SLE. The study also underscored the significant contribution of regulatory B (Breg) cells in the context of SLE, suggesting their potential as key regulators of the disease process. Our results provided a deeper understanding of the intricate interplay between B cells and SLE, offering insights that were valuable for both scientific research and future designs of therapeutic approaches. Cutting-edge single-cell RNA sequencing was employed to analyze the differences in splenic Breg subsets and their molecular profiles across different stages of lupus development in mice. Transcriptome-based changes in Bregs during active disease were confirmed through phenotypic analysis. These findings provided crucial insights into the dynamic role of B cells in the pathogenesis of SLE. In addition, we delved into the intricate connection between SLE and the gut microbiota. A literature review offered a comprehensive analysis of current research, with a particular emphasis on potential interactions between bacterial flagellin and Toll-Like Receptor 5 (TLR5) on immune cells. These interactions garnered substantial attention due to their potential implications in the pathogenesis of SLE. We synthesized existing research, providing valuable insights into the complex interplay between SLE and the microbiota and suggesting promising avenues for further investigation and potential therapeutic interventions. In the final study, we explored lupus-like disease in mice with global Tlr5 deletion, initially expecting disease attenuation. Surprisingly, the results revealed an exacerbation of lupus-like symptoms, particularly in female mice lacking Tlr5. Future research will seek to uncover the mechanisms by which Tlr5 deletion modulates interactions between the host and the gut microbiota, ultimately contributing to the exacerbation of lupus-like disease. / Doctor of Philosophy / Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) is characterized by a range of health issues and the body attacking itself. In this exploration, we journey through the intricate landscape of SLE, uncovering key players and unexpected twists. In this dissertation, we journeyed through the intricate landscape of SLE, uncovering key players and unexpected twists. In this dissertation, we closely examined these immune cells, revealing how different types of B cells contributed to SLE's development. We also introduced the enigmatic regulatory B (Breg) cells, which acted as potential peacekeepers in this autoimmune reaction. Our results illuminated the complex relationship between B cells and SLE, offering insights that benefited both researchers and those seeking new treatments. We employed cutting-edge technology, single-cell RNA sequencing, to scrutinize the genetic fingerprints of B cells in mice with SLE. The results unveiled changes in Breg cells during active disease, providing critical clues about how B cells impacted SLE progression. In addition, this dissertation took us into the microscopic world of our gut inhabitants, the microbiota. We dived into a treasure trove of research, focusing on how interactions between bacterial flagellin and various microbiota elements affected immune cells through a special receptor called Toll-Like Receptor 5 (TLR5). These interactions, like hidden clues, had piqued scientists' interest for their potential role in SLE development. We synthesized existing research, offering valuable insights into the complex interplay between SLE and our microbiota. The discussion also suggested promising paths for future research and potential therapies. In the final study, we encountered a plot twist. We anticipated that deleting the Tlr5 gene would improve lupus-like disease in mice. To our surprise, the opposite happened. Lupus-like symptoms worsened, especially in female mice lacking Tlr5. Clinical signs included enlarged spleens and lymph nodes, increased immune cell activity, and kidney inflammation. But Tlr5 deletion didn't change the mice's metabolism or the leaky gut. Instead, it reshaped their gut's microbial residents. Future research aimed to uncover how Tlr5 deletion altered the interactions between the host and gut microbes, ultimately making lupus-like disease more severe. In a nutshell, this journey through SLE's complex world provided a deeper understanding of its intricacies. We met the B cells, explored the microbiota, and encountered surprises along the way. These discoveries were vital pieces of the puzzle, bringing us closer to unlocking the secrets of SLE and, perhaps, finding new ways to manage and treat this challenging autoimmune disorder.

La thérapie antirétrovirale (ART) a permis d’augmenter l’espérance de vie et sa qualité chez les individus infectés par le VIH-1. Toutefois, l’inflammation chronique persiste et est associée à un excès du « B-cell activating factor » (BAFF). Cette cytokine est un facteur clé de la survie et la différenciation des lymphocytes B, en particulier pour ceux dits de la zone marginale (MZ) qui sont des populations B dites innées possédant un « B-cell receptor » (BCR) polyréactif. Dans le contexte de l’infection au VIH-1, l’excès de BAFF a été associé avec la dérégulation du compartiment B, l’hyperglobulinémie, ainsi que le bris de tolérance et l’apparition de manifestations auto-immunes. De plus, nous avons observé une augmentation de la fréquence d’une population présentant à la fois des caractéristiques de cellules B MZ et transitionnelles immatures (TI) que nous avons nommée « précurseurs des MZ » (MZp) dans le sang des individus infectés. Ces MZp partagent également certains marqueurs phénotypiques avec plusieurs populations B régulatrices (Breg) identifiées chez l’humain. Les objectifs de ce travail sont de 1) caractériser le potentiel Breg des MZp par l’analyse de leur transcriptome et par cytométrie en flux, puis 2) d’étudier l’impact de l’infection au VIH-1 et d’un excès de BAFF sur le potentiel Breg des MZp sanguins d’individus de la cohorte de la primo-infection (PHI) du réseau FRQS, et 3) d’étudier l’impact de l’infection au VIH-1 et d’un excès de BAFF sur la production d’anticorps spécifiques au VIH-1 et la possible contribution des MZp à l’hyperglobulinémie chez ces individus. Dans un premier temps, nos résultats démontrent que les MZp d’individus non infectés possèdent un important phénotype Breg caractérisé par l’expression des molécules régulatrices NR4As, CD83, CD39, CD73 et l’IL-10. Les MZp ont également une fonction régulatrice impliquant CD83 et PD-L1. Dans un deuxième temps, nos résultats démontrent que dans le contexte du VIH-1, ce potentiel est complètement altéré vu la diminution d’expression de ces molécules et par la perte de la fonction régulatrice, et qui est directement affectée par un excès de BAFF. Enfin, nous démontrons que les MZp des individus infectés ont un profil associé à l’épuisement et que les gènes impliqués dans l’activation menant à la production d’anticorps sont augmentés, au détriment de ceux associés à la régulation. De façon intéressante, les MZp provenant du sang d’individus infectés expriment à la hausse des transcrits de gènes IGHV impliqués dans la génération d’anticorps neutralisants du VIH-1. De plus, nous démontrons que la quantité et la qualité des IgG spécifiques au virus sont en lien avec le statut de progression de l’infection et le niveau des taux de BAFF qui y est associés. Ainsi, basé sur nos résultats, il serait possible d’envisager une étude avec des avenues thérapeutiques existantes, ciblant BAFF ou l’expression des NR4As, pour tenter de diminuer les niveaux de BAFF ou restaurer le potentiel Breg des MZp respectivement. De telles avenues, en combinaison avec ART, pourraient être intéressantes dans le but de diminuer l’inflammation chronique et restaurer l’immunocompétence chez ces individus. / Antiretroviral therapy (ART) has increased life quality and longevity of HIV-infected individuals. However, chronic inflammation persists and is associated with increased B-cell activating factor (BAFF). BAFF is a key survival and differentiation factor for B-cells, especially for marginal zone B-cells (MZ). MZ are innate-like B-cells that are known for their quick antibody responses and polyreactive B-cell receptor (BCR). In the context of HIV-1 infection, BAFF is found in excess in the blood of infected individuals and is associated with the dysregulation of the B-cell compartment, hyperglobulinemia, breach of tolerance and autoimmune manifestations. We reported an increase in the frequency of precursor-like MZ (MZp) B-cells in the blood of HIV-infected individuals. Interestingly, these MZp possess a phenotype that is similar to certain Breg populations identified in human. The objective of this work is to first characterize the Breg potential of MZp from HIV-uninfected individuals by RNAseq analyses and flow cytometry, and second to study the impact of HIV-1 infection and excess BAFF on the dysregulation of the Breg potential of MZp from blood samples of individuals from the primo-infection (PHI) cohort of the FRQS. Our third objective is to study the impact of HIV-infection and excess BAFF on HIV-1 specific antibodies and better understand the contribution of MZp to hyperglobulinemia in HIV-1 infected individuals. Our results showed that MZp from HIV-uninfected individuals possess a stong Breg phenotype characterized by high expression of regulatory molecules such as NR4As, CD83, CD39, CD73 and IL-10. They also have an important Breg function that involves CD83 and PD-L1. We also demonstrate that HIV-1 infection impairs the Breg potential of MZp by downregulating the expression of regulatory markers and by altering their function, which high BAFF levels can directly affect. Also, MZp from HIV-infected individuals present an exhausted profile and an increased expression of genes involved in immunoglobulin (Ig) production. Interestingly, MZp from the blood of HIV-infected individuals show increased expression of IGHV gene transcripts associated with broadly neutralizing antibodies. We find that the quantity and quality of HIV-Env specific IgG is linked with disease progression status and associated levels of BAFF. Our results suggest that existing therapeutic strategies targeting BAFF or NR4As expression could be contemplated in order to try reducing BAFF levels or for restoring Breg potential, respectively. As such, such avenues could be envisaged as adjunct to ART to lower the inflammatory burden and restore immune competence of HIV-infected individuals.

Malgré la présence d’un traitement très efficace disponible pour les personnes vivant avec le virus de l’immunodéficience humaine (PVVIH) qui permet à celles-ci d’avoir une espérance de vie presque normale, une inflammation chronique demeure toujours, et celle-ci est la cause du développement prématuré de comorbidités associées au vieillissement, comme des maladies cardiovasculaires (MCV) telles que l’athérosclérose. Cette inflammation chronique se traduit entre autres par un excès de la molécule « B-cell activating factor » (BAFF), un facteur de survie et différenciation des lymphocytes B. L’excès de BAFF dans le contexte du VIH est associé notamment avec la dérégulation du compartiment des lymphocytes B, l’hyperglobulinémie, le bris de tolérance et certaines manifestations autoimmunes. De façon importante, nous avons caractérisé l’augmentation des fréquences des cellules B de la zone marginale de type précurseurs (MZp), une population innée dont la sélection implique BAFF, et qui chez les individus non-infectés a démontré une forte capacité régulatrice et anti-inflammatoire. L’objectif de ce travail était, dans un premier temps, d’identifier, à l’aide d’analyses transcriptomique et par cytométrie en flux, le phénotype des MZp provenant du sang des PVVIH. Dans un second temps, l’objectif de ce travail était d’étudier la corrélation entre les niveaux de BAFF et de son analogue « A proliferation-inducing ligand » (APRIL) avec la dérégulation des MZp ainsi que des marqueurs classiques du développement de MCV dans les spécimens sanguins provenant d’individus de la Cohorte Canadienne VIH et Vieillissement. Nos résultats démontrent une altération dans le phénotype B régulateur (Breg) des MZp, traduit par une baisse d’expression des récepteurs nucléaires NR4A1, NR4A2 et NR4A3, ainsi qu’une baisse de leur fonction régulatrice. Cette baisse d’expression et de fonction semble être directement en lien avec l’excès de BAFF dans le contexte du VIH. De plus, nous démontrons que BAFF corrèle avec plusieurs facteurs de risque pour le développement des MCV, tandis qu’APRIL corrèle négativement avec ceux-ci. De façon intéressante, APRIL est capable de moduler positivement l’expression des NR4As par les MZp in vitro. Nos résultats suggèrent que des stratégies permettant de moduler les niveaux de BAFF et/ou APRIL pourraient être envisagées afin de réduire le fardeau inflammatoire chez les PVVIH et restaurer l’immunocompétence des MZp. / Despite the existence of a very efficient treatment that allows people living with the human immunodeficiency virus (PLHIV) to live a relatively normal life, chronic inflammation persists and is the cause of the premature development of age-associated comorbidities, such as cardiovascular diseases (CVD) like atherosclerosis. This chronic inflammation involves an excess of “B-cell activation factor” (BAFF), a survival and differentiation factor for B-cells, especially for Marginal Zone B-cells (MZ), which are innate type B-cells that depend on BAFF for their selection. The excess of BAFF is associated with B-cell deregulations, breakage of tolerance and certain auto-immune manifestations. Notably, we have reported that frequencies of precursor MZ B-cells (MZp) were increased in the blood of HIV-1 infected individuals. As such, we have recently shown that in uninfected individuals, MZp possess strong regulatory and anti-inflammatory capacities. The objective of this work was to first, identify, based on transcriptomic and flow-cytometry analyses, the gene and molecular phenotype of MZ populations from the blood of PLHIV, and secondly, to study the correlation between levels of BAFF and its analogue, “A proliferation-inducing ligand” (APRIL) with MZ deregulation and classical CVD markers in blood samples from individuals of the Canadian HIV and Aging Cohort Study. Our results show an alteration in the regulatory B-cell (Breg) phenotype of MZp, related to a downregulation of the nuclear receptors NR4A1, NR4A2 and NR4A3. Furthermore, we find a reduction of the regulatory function of blood MZp. This diminished expression and function seems to be linked to the excess of BAFF in the HIV context. Furthermore, we demonstrate that BAFF correlates with several risk factors for atherosclerosis development, while APRIL negatively correlate with these factors. Interestingly, APRIL positively modulates the expression of NR4As by MZp in vitro. Our results suggest that BAFF and/or APRIL modulation strategies could be envisaged to lower the inflammatory burden in people living with HIV and restore MZp immunocompetence.