No description available.

The performance of ebullated bed hydroprocessors depends on the fluids distribution system and liquid recycle pan. Given that bubbles do not readily coalesce in the bed, the original bubble size distribution generated at the bubble cap distributor likely impacts buoyancy-based phase separation at the recycle pan. Gas entrained in the liquid recycle increases bed gas holdup at the expense of liquid holdup and product yield. The aim of this work was to investigate the impact of gas-liquid distribution system on resulting bubble properties and dynamics and incorporate a distributor sub-model into an existing fluid dynamics model of the industrial hydroprocessor. The size of initial bubbles formed in the plenum chamber was found to have negligible impact on phase holdups above the distributor. However, resulting bubble properties were found to depend on distributor geometry, distributor power dissipation and gas-liquid velocity ratio. In addition, a new set of scaling laws for gas-liquid distributors, based on dimensional analysis and similitude, was proposed. Geometric scaling was based on matching distributor fractional open area and ratios of critical dimensions. Dynamic similarity was based on matching three dimensionless groups and bubble coalescence behaviour. A bubble size distribution model was then developed. Both pressure and distributor were found to have an impact on individual bubble drag coefficients, as they both altered bubble size distribution. A novel drag model was thus also developed at industrially relevant conditions. Finally, a new gas-liquid distributor sub-model, including bubble size distribution and drag models previously developed, was incorporated into an overall fluid dynamics model of the hydroprocessor. The bubble size distribution model was also coupled with existing gas-liquid separation sub-model to better predict recycled gas and liquid fractions. A sensitivity analysis performed with the overall model revealed distributor configurations with potential of improving the processing capacity of the hydroprocessor.

A 5. 0 em. diameter column was used for gas absorption. The column contained internal baffling and was operated in a countercurrent mode. Oxygen comprised the gaseous phase and tap water the liquid phase. The column was operated both with and without pulsations. The injection and exhaustion of compressed air to the system provided the pulsation mechanism. The mixing as well as the mass transfer characteristics were examined. A Set of experiments independent of the mass transfer work was carried out in order to study mixing in the column. A refluxing mechanism is uncovered in the mixing experiments. Values for the axial dispersion coefficient, volumetric mass transfer coefficient and reflux ratio are reported over the range of the operating parameters. / Thesis / Master of Engineering (MEngr)

No description available.

Bubble columns and airlift reactors were modeled numerically to better understand the hydrodynamics and analyze the mixing characteristics for each configuration. An Eulerian-Eulerian approach was used to model air as the dispersed phase within a continuous phase of water using the commercial software FLUENT. The Schiller-Naumann drag model was employed along with virtual mass and the standard k-e turbulence model. The equations were discretized using the QUICK scheme and solved with the SIMPLE coupling algorithm. The flow regimes of a bubble column were investigated by varying the column diameter and the inlet gas velocity using two-dimensional simulations. The typical characteristics of a homogeneous, slug, and heterogeneous flow were shown by examining gas holdup. The flow field predicted using two-dimensional simulations of the airlift reactor showed a regular oscillation of the gas flow due to recirculation from the downcomer and connectors, whereas the bubble column oscillations were random and resulted in gas flow through the center of the column. The profiles of gas holdup, gas velocity, and liquid velocity showed that the airlift reactor flow was asymmetric and the bubble column flow was symmetric about the vertical axis of the column. The average gas holdup in a 10.2 cm diameter bubble column was calculated and the results for the two-dimensional simulation of varying inlet gas velocities were similar to published experimental results. The average gas holdup in the airlift reactor for the three-dimensional simulations compared well with the experiments, and the two-dimensional simulations underpredicted the average gas holdup. / Master of Science

O glicerol pode ser aproveitado em processos biotecnológico como substrato, para a obtenção de diversos produtos, dentre eles os óleos microbianos. Desta forma, o presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a obtenção de lipídeos pela levedura Rhodotorula glutinis a partir de glicerol. Na etapa inicial deste estudo foram realizados ensaios em frascos agitados de 250 mL, contendo 50 mL de meio, segundo um planejamento experimental 24, com face centrada e repetições no ponto central, no qual foram avaliadas as influências das variáveis concentração de substrato (40 a 200 g/L), da razão carbono/nitrogênio (20:1 a 100:1), pH (5 a 7) e concentração de inóculo (1 a 5 g/L), sobre a produção de lipídeos. Verificou-se nesta etapa que, dentro da região avaliada, a concentração de substrato, o pH e a razão carbono/nitrogênio (C/N), apresentaram efeitos estatisticamente significativos sobre a produção de lipídeos. Dentre estas variáveis, a concentração de substrato e o pH apresentaram comportamento quadrático, com pontos de máximo acúmulo de lipídeos próximos a 140 g/L e pH 6,5, respectivamente. Quanto a razão C/N, esta variável mostrou um efeito positivo sobre o acúmulo de lipídeos, ou seja, dentro a região avaliada, o aumento da razão C/N levou a um aumento do acúmulo de lipídeos pela levedura. Nos cultivos realizados nas condições determinadas pelo modelo para maximizar o acúmulo de lipídeos foram alcançadas concentrações de células de 30 ± 1 g/L e lipídios de 15 ± 3 g/L, em 200 h de cultivo. Na segunda etapa deste estudo foi avaliada a ampliação de escala dos cultivos da levedura de frascos agitados para biorreatores de agitação pneumática do tipo coluna de bolhas (CB) e airlift (AL), com volumes de 0,5 e 1,8 L. Os cultivos em biorreatores foram realizados empregando-se as condições otimizadas na etapa anterior deste trabalho. De modo geral, os cultivos realizados em biorreatores de bancada aprestaram concentração de células (15 a 21 g/L) e de lipídeos (5 a 9 g/L), inferiores aos observados em frascos agitados (30 g/L de células e 15 g/L de lipídeos). Tal resultado pode estar relacionado a condição de disponibilidade de oxigênio uma vez que o coeficiente volumétrico de transferência de oxigênio (kLa) para os cultivos em frascos agitados (kLa 49 h-1) foi superior ao alcançado em biorreatores (kLa ente 20 e 30 h-1). Nesta etapa, verificou-se ainda que, os biorreatores do tipo CB possibilitaram alcançar uma concentração de lipídeos (8 a 9 g/L) superior à obtida nos reatores AL (5 a 7 g/L), além de proporcionar uma condição de mistura mais eficiente. Quanto a composição do óleo microbiano (OM) extraído da biomassa celular ao fim do cultivo, verificou-se elevados teores dos ácidos graxos palmítico (C16:0), esteárico (C18:0), oleico (C18:1) e linoleico (C18:2), os quais corresponderam a cerca de 95% de sua composição. A proporção de ácidos graxos de dezesseis e dezoito carbonos do óleo microbiano assemelha-se a encontrada no óleo de soja (cerca de 94% de C16 e C18), o que possibilita o emprego deste óleo para finalidades semelhantes às do óleo de soja, como por exemplo, produção de biodiesel. / Glycerol can be used in biotechnological processes as a substrate to obtain various products, among them microbial oils. In this way, the present study aims to evaluate the lipids production by the yeast Rhodotorula glutinis from glycerol. In the initial stage of this study, experiments were performed in 250 mL shaken flasks, containing 50 mL of medium, according to an experimental design 24, face centered and repetitions at the central point, in which the substrate concentration (40 to 200 g/L), carbon/nitrogen ratio (20:1 to 100:1), pH (5 to 7) and inoculum concentration (1 to 5 g/L) effects on lipid production were evaluated. It was verified that, within the evaluated region, the substrate concentration, pH and carbon/nitrogen ratio (C/N) had statistically significant effects on lipid production. Among these variables, the substrate concentration and pH presented a quadratic behavior, with maximum lipids accumulation points close to 140 g/L and pH 6.5, respectively. The C/N ratio presented a positive effect on the lipid accumulation, that is, within the region evaluated, the increase in the C/N ratio led to an increase in the lipid accumulation by yeast. Cultures performed under conditions determined by the model to maximize lipid accumulation reached cell concentrations of 30 ± 1 g/L and lipids of 15 ± 3 g/L in 200 h of culture. In the second stage of this study, the scale-up of the yeast shake flasks cultures for bubble column (CB) and airlift (AL) pneumatic agitation bioreactors, with volumes of 0.5 and 1.8 L, were evaluated. Cultures in bioreactors were performed using the optimized conditions in the previous stage of this work. In general, cultures in bioreactors presented cells concentrations (15 to 21 g / L) and lipids (5 to 9 g/L) lower than those observed in shaker flasks (30 g/L of cells and 15 g/L of lipid). This result may be related to the oxygen availability condition since the volumetric oxygen transfer coefficient (kLa) for cultures in shaker flasks (kLa 49 h-1) was higher than in bioreactors (kLa 20 and 30 h-1). In this stage, it was also verified that CB-type bioreactors achieve a lipid concentration (8 to 9 g/L) higher than that obtained in AL reactors (5 to 7 g/L), besides providing more efficient mixing conditions. About the composition of the microbial oil (MO), extracted from the cell biomass at the end of the cultivation, presented high levels of palmitic (C16: 0), stearic (C18: 0), oleic (C18:1) and linoleic (C18:2) fatty acids, which corresponded to about 95% of its composition. The proportion of microbial oil fatty acids of sixteen and eighteen carbons resembles that found in soybean oil (about 94% C16 and C18), which makes it possible to use this oil for similar purposes as soybean oil, such as biodiesel production, for example.

The hydrodynamic phenomena occurring inside the enclosed downcomer section of a plunging jet bubble column are described in the study. The gas entrainment rate for a plunging liquid jet was found to consist of two components, namely the gas trapped within the effective jet diameter at the point of impact, and the gas contained within the film between the jet and induction trumpet surface at the point of rupture. Entrainment within the effective jet diameter has been examined by McCarthy (1972). In this study, a model was supported by the experimental results, provided the film attained a region of constant thickness. When the induction trumpet was ruptured prior to a constant film thickness being reached, the measured rate of filmwise entrainment was higher than the prediction. Filmwise entrainment was found to be initiated once a critical velocity along the surface of the induction trumpet was reached. The critical velocity was a function only of the liquid physical properties and was independent of the jet conditions and downcomer diameter. The velocity of the free surface of the induction trumpet was obtained from the velocity profile for the recirculating eddy generated by the confined plunging liquid jet. The jet angle used to describe the expansion of the submerged jet inside the downcomer was predicted from the radial diffusion of jet momentum into the recirculation eddy. The model was able to predict the jet angle when it was assumed that the radial diffusion of jet momentum was a function of the Euler number based on the jet velocity and absolute pressure in the headspace at the top of the downcomer. The model was also developed to predict the maximum stable bubble diameter generated within the submerged jet volume, where the energy dissipation attributed to bubble breakup was given by the energy mixing loss derived for the throat section of a liquid-jet-gas-pump. Good agreement was found between the measured and predicted maximum bubble diameter values. The average experimental Sauter mean/maximum diameter ratio was found to be 0.61, which was similar to that for other bubble generation devices. It was found that for turbulent liquid conditions in the uniform two-phase flow region, a transition from bubble to churn-turbulent flow occurred at a gas void fraction of approximately 0.2 when the gas drift-flux was zero. Under laminar liquid flow, this transition took place at a gas void fraction above 0.3. For the bubbly flow regime the Distribution parameter Co used by Zuber and Findlay (1965) to describe the velocity and gas void fraction profile, was found to be a function of the liquid Reynolds number. For laminar liquid flow, values of Co greater than unity were obtained. As the liquid Reynolds number was increased it was found that Co decreased, until a constant value of unity was obtained for fully turbulent flow. For the churn-turbulent regime it was found that the gas void fraction measurements for all of the experimental runs could be collapsed onto a single curve when a modified gas void fraction was plotted against the gas-to-liquid volumetric flow ratio. The modified gas void fraction included a correction factor to account for the difference in the bubble slip velocity between the experimental runs. The experimental results also indicated that the value of the constant in the gas void fraction correction factor was different for laminar and turbulent flow. Prior to bubble coalescence, it was found that the experimental drift-flux curves could be predicted from the measured bubble diameter, using the separated flow model development by Ishii and Zuber (1979). After the onset of coalescence the drift flux measurements departed from the original drift-flux curves at a rate which increased linearly with increasing gas void fraction. It was found that the slope of the line fitted to the coalesced region of the drift-flux curves increased with increasing liquid Reynolds number and reached a constant value under fully turbulent flow conditions. The model developed, together with the implications of the experimental results, are discussed with regard to optimising the design of an industrial plunging jet bubble column. / PhD Doctorate

L’oxydation du cyclohexane est l’un des procédés les plus importants dans la chaîne de production du Nylon où l’oxygène et le cyclohexane entrent en contact pour former le cyclohexanol, la cyclohexanone puis l’acide adipique. Le rendement est influencé à la fois par le transfert de l’oxygène et par le mélange des réactifs en phase liquide. Des réacteurs de type colonne à bulles sont généralement utilisés pour fournir une aire interfaciale importante et garantir une agitation efficace en phase liquide. Cependant, la complexité des mécanismes impliqués (hydrodynamique, transfert, réaction, fort taux de vide) rend difficile la prédiction des performances des réacteurs. Ce travail est consacré à l’amélioration des lois de fermetures (quantité de mouvement et transferts) pour la modélisation Euler/Euler des réacteurs industriels utilisés pour le procédé d’oxydation du cyclohexane. Dans un premier temps, des expériences de laboratoire avec le système eau/air ont été réalisées jusqu’à de forts taux de vide (> 30%) pour mesurer les effets collectifs sur la force de traînée et le transfert de masse dans un essaim de bulles homogène. Les résultats ont confirmé que le coefficient de traînée des bulles augmente de manière significative avec le taux de vide alors que de manière surprenante l’effet est très faible sur le transfert. Dans un second temps, des expériences ont été réalisées avec le système cyclohexane/diazote dans des conditions industrielles (P = 1 - 20 bar, T = 30 - 150°C). L’analyse des résultats de transfert en condition industrielle a nécessité la simulation numérique directe du transfert à l’intérieur d’une bulle sphérique / Cyclohexane oxidation is one of the most important processes in the production line of Nylon, where oxygen and cyclohexane get in contact to produce cyclohexanol, cyclohexanone and then adipic acid. The production yield is influenced by both the oxygen transfer and the reactants mixing in liquid phase. Bubble column type reactors are usually used to provide a large interfacial area and efficient liquid phase agitation. However, the complexity of the mechanisms involved (hydrodynamic, transfer, reaction, high void fraction) makes it difficult to predict the performance of such reactors. This work is devoted to improve the associated closure laws of momentum and transfer equations used in Euler/Euler modelling of industrial reactors for cyclohexane oxidation. Bench-scale experiment for air-water system has been firstly carried out to measure the collective effects on the drag force and the mass transfer of a bubble in a homogenous bubble swarm with a high void fraction up to 30%. The results confirmed that bubble’s drag coefficient increases significantly with the void fraction. Meanwhile surprisingly, weak effect has been observed on the transfer. Nextly, pilot experiments with nitrogen-cyclohexane system have been performed under industrial conditions (P = 1 - 20 bar, T = 30 - 150°C). Analysis of the results of transfer under industrial conditions required finally direct numerical simulation of transfers inside a spherical bubble.

Abstract : The industrial partner of this project uses a slurry bubble reactor for the production of biogenic methanol. In the latter syngas is dispersed into the slurry continuous phase containing both liquid and solid phases. The rising bubbles containing a wide spectrum of the bubbles sizes, interact with the continuous phase due to the interface momentum transfer. The latter includes the drag, lift, wall lubrication and turbulent dispersion terms that require average bubble size, which needs to be calculated. One way to predict this average bubble size is by using population balance model (PBM), which can be coupled with the Eulerian framework. PBM also needs closure kernels for the bubble coalescence and bubble breakup. In this study, the influence of bubble coalescence and bubble breakup kernels have been studied in two- and three-phase system using eulerian approach, which solves momentum equation for each phase. The influence of the mesh sizes, number of bubble classes, numerical schemes, wall lubrication force and turbulent dispersion force are also included. In the two-phase system, results show that the Luo coalescence model needs to be tuned when used in combination with the Luo breakup kernel. The combination of the Luo coalescence and the Lehr breakup kernels (Luo-Lehr) show promising time-averaged radial profiles of gas holdup and axial liquid velocity as compared to empirical values. In the three-phase system, the combination of the Luo coalescence and the Lehr breakup kernels (Luo-Lehr) and the Luo coalescence and the Luo breakup kernels (Luo-Luo) predict convincing time-averaged radial profile of axial solid velocity as compared to experiments. However, at an elevated superficial gas velocity, a non-realistic behavior was predicted when compared to empirical observations. The sensitivity analysis results show that the 3 mm mesh size depicts a trend similar to the empirical values of the radial profiles of the gas holdup, axial liquid velocity, and solid axial velocity. The number of bubble classes influence the predicted bubble size distribution in the three-phase system while the numerical discretizing schemes have no influence on the results. The bench simulation results show that the inclusion of the turbulent dispersion term using a single porous tubular sparger influences the hydrodynamic behavior of the bubble column. / Le partenaire industriel de ce projet utilise un réacteur à suspension à trois phases pour la production de méthanol biogénique. Dans celui-ci, le gaz de synthèse est diffusé par barbotement dans la phase à suspension qui contient à la fois les phases liquide et solide. Les bulles en ascension présentent un large spectre de tailles et interagissent avec la phase à suspension en échangeant de la quantité de mouvement via leurs surfaces. Cet échange comprend les forces de trainé, de portance, de lubrification en proche parois et de dispersion par turbulence; lesquelles requièrent notamment le calcul de la taille moyenne des bulles. Une façon de prédire numériquement cette taille moyenne est de recourir à un modèle de bilan de population (PBM, de l’anglais Population Balance Model), qui peut être couplé avec un model multiphasique eulérien. Un tel PBM a requière des modèles de fermetures pour la coalescence et la rupture des bulles. Dans la présente étude, l'influence des modèles noyaux de coalescence et de rupture des bulles a été étudiée pour des systèmes à deux et à trois phases en utilisant l’approche eulérienne. L'influence de la taille du maillage, du nombre de classes de bulles, du schéma numérique, de la force de lubrification en proche parois et de la force de dispersion par turbulence sont également incluses. Dans un système bi-phasique, les résultats montrent que le modèle de coalescence Luo doit être ajusté lorsqu'il est utilisé en combinaison avec le noyau de rupture Luo. La combinaison des noyaux de coalescence Luo et de rupture Lehr (Luo-Lehr) montrent des profils radiaux moyennés dans le temps qui sont valides pour la concentration de gaz et la vitesse axiale du liquide par rapport aux mesures expérimentales. Dans le système triphasé, la combinaison des modèles noyaux de coalescence de Luo et de rupture de Lehr (Luo-Lehr) et de la coalescence de Luo et de rupture de Luo (Luo-Luo) prédisent des profils radiaux moyennés dans le temps qui sont valides pour la vitesse axiale moyenné dans le temps par rapport aux expériences. Cependant, à une vitesse de gaz superficielle élevée, ces profils prédisent un comportement non réaliste par rapport aux observations empiriques. Les résultats de l'analyse de sensibilité du maillage montrent qu’avec des cellules de 3 mm, le model prédit une tendance similaire aux valeurs empiriques pour les profils radiaux de concentration du gaz, de vitesse axiale du liquide et de vitesse axiale solide. Le nombre de classes de bulles influe sur les distributions prédites de taille de bulle dans le système triphasé alors que les schémas de discrétisation numériques n'ont aucune influence sur les résultats. Les résultats des simulations d’un banc d’essai avec diffuseur à bulles poreux montrent que tenir compte du terme de dispersion influence le comportement hydrodynamique de la colonne à bulles.

Research into hydrate production technologies has increased in the past years. While many technologies have been presented, there is no consensus on which reactor design is best for each potential application. A direct experimental comparison of hydrate production technologies has been carried out in between a variety of reactor configurations at similar driving force conditions. Three main reactor types were used: a stirred tank, a fixed bed and a bubble column and compared different phase contacting patterns for the stirred tank and bubble column. In the initial phase of hydrate formation in a stirred tank, formation was mass and heat transfer limited at the lower stirring speed, and heat transfer limited at the higher stirring speed. After more than 10% of the water had been converted to hydrate, formation was mass transfer limited regardless of the other conditions. Neither the use of a gas inducing impeller, nor a 10 wt% particle slurry significantly affected hydrate formation rates; however, the particle slurry did lower the induction time. Due to the poor scale-up of impeller power consumption in a stirred tank, a semi-batch fixed bed was studied since it does not require any power input for mixing. The significantly slower rates of formation observed in the semi-batch fixed bed, as well as the lost reactor capacity to particles, mean that this type of system would require a much larger reactor. Faster volume and power normalized rates of hydrate formation were observed in the bubble column than in a stirred tank at similar mass transfer driving force conditions. Higher conversions of water to hydrate were observed in the bubble column because mixing was accomplished by bubbling gas from the bottom rather than by an impeller. The highest conversions of water and gas were achieved during a later stage of accelerated hydrate formation, indicating an optimal hydrate fraction for continuously operated bubble column reactors. The second stage of hydrate formation occurred more frequently at higher gas flowratess. Therefore, the increased water conversion and single-pass gas conversion justify the increased energy input required by the higher gas flowrate. Balancing the rates of mass transfer and heat removal was also critical for optimal bubble column as insufficient mass transfer would result in a lower rate of formation and insufficient heat transfer would cause previously formed hydrates to dissociate. The addition of 10wt% glass beads to the reactor promoted hydrate formation; however, it did not do so sufficiently to make up for the loss in reactor capacity or the increased energy requirement.