Word of mouth is generally agreed to be the foremost source of new business acquisition for small businesses and owners/managers often cite 'word of mouth' referrals as the main source of business generation (Carson, 1985; Curran and Blackburn, 1994; Stokes 2000). However, little is known about how small business owners know their firms gain word of mouth or, indeed, of the dynamics that influence the incidence of word of mouth. The objective of this study is to investigate the role of word of mouth in the operation of small firms in the service sector. The thesis draws upon extant theory and original empirical evidence. Specifically, the thesis seeks to examine how recommendation can be proactively managed, which is now a central element of contemporary marketing literature (Stokes 2002). The research has incorporated three sources of data for the purpose of triangulation of different perspectives, including interviews with owners/managers at key stages of the research, customer surveys and documentary evidence from the businesses. A Longitudinal case study approach is employed to achieve the research aims. This allows an exploration of the role and management of word of mouth within small firms and provides a theoretically informed insight into the triggers of referrals and recommendations. This approach is believed to have the potential of "systematically gathering enough information about a particular person, social setting, event or group to permit the researcher to effectively understand how it operates or functions" (Berg, 1998:212). The primary units of analysis are the owners/managers in the Leisure and Tourism sector, who have proactively managed word of mouth. However, the study also includes the customers' perspectives regarding their recommending and complaining tendencies. The study has produced an original investigation about the significance of word of mouth in service sector enterprises, which includes a conceptual model of the stimulants of recommendation in small businesses.

This thesis examines the question of Information System (IS) success and looks to determine if it is possible to describe that success in terms of a package of separate, interrelated success factors which can be identified and tracked through the use of a questioning framework. This research examines "common" models of IS success and failure and proposes, based on those models, areas that are regarded as important contributors to IS success. A framework is proposed that will allow multi-national organisations to identify success factors that are specific to their organisational context and this framework is then tested in a global IS company. As a result of this testing, it was found that the success factors identified did indeed relate to the framework that was proposed, but that additional work was needed to include areas that the research identified and also, to improve how the resulting success factors were presented to the organisation for easy understanding

Within a complex global marketplace, achieving cultural diversity within organisations, and managing it effectively, is a challenge. Despite high capital expenditure on diversity management initiatives, research shows programmes have been ineffective in yielding significant positive outcomes. This raises two questions. The first is: ‘Why do organisations continue to invest in diversity management if it is not effective?’ The second is: ‘Why are diversity management practices not effective?’ Answers to both questions are sought, and improvements which can be made and sustained are explored. It is written for professionals with responsibility for diversity management. They include board members, human resource professionals, equality, diversity and inclusion practitioners, and corporate responsibility professionals. They have been charged with overseeing diversity management, and require greater knowledge and strategic savvy in order to meet their objectives. The main question of this thesis is: ‘How can diversity management effectiveness be improved within a complex global marketplace?’ Three studies critically explore the relationship between the quality of institutional management culture and the effectiveness of the diversity management practices. The first, a questionnaire study, explores the causal relationship between a variety of independent variables and their effect on diversity management. The second and third are exploratory and descriptive action research case studies, examining the effects of a democratic and participative system of institutional governance on the effectiveness of diversity management. This thesis contributes to diversity management literature by highlighting, and suggesting how to overcome institutional ethoi which run counter to the principles of equality, diversity and inclusion, thus creating barriers reducing the effectiveness of diversity management initiatives. This knowledge will enable researchers and practitioners to understand more fully institutional root causes impeding development, and how to challenge them effectively. It will also assist in developing effective diversity strategies outside of the Anglo-American context within which this HRM practice began.

Consumer awareness about ethical issues has been growing over the last decades. Knowledge and awareness about ethical products has led to businesses responding with a variety of ethical products for the consumers. The growth in ethical products market has attracted the interest of researchers as evidenced in a growing body of literature on ethical behaviour. Ethical decision-making models in the extant research tend to emphasise social interest values, such as ethical obligation and ethical self-identity, as predictors of ethical behaviour. However, little is known about factors such as self-interest values and motives, crucial in the formation of attitudes and behaviour towards ethical purchases. Furthermore, research evidence, as well as industry reports, highlights that although consumers generally have a positive attitude towards purchasing ethical products, there is a discrepancy between their attitudes, intention and actual purchase behaviour. Whilst the link between intention and behaviour has been found to be generally tenuous, studies in the domain of consumer research suggest that intention to purchase can be treated as a predictor of behaviour (i.e., an immediate precursor of actual purchase). The determinants of consumers' intention to purchase ethical products, incorporating self-interest values and motives, are the focus of this study. Much of the prior research in ethical buying behaviour has focused on fast moving consumer goods categories, which are considered to be 'low-involvement' purchases. In contrast, involvement is considered to be an important underlying motivation for consumer purchase of other products such as clothing. Therefore, the product category of ethical clothing is chosen for investigation in this study because of the 'high-involvement' nature of fashion purchases. Understanding the determinants of consumer intention towards ethical buying can provide insights on consumers' motivational state (i.e., social interest and self-interest) influencing ethical choices. Specifically, this research examines the role of involvement in consumers' decision-making process to purchase ethical clothing (direct and moderating effects of clothing involvement). The data were collected via online survey instrument from an existing panel of a UK-based market research company. The proposed research model was tested employing the Partial Least Squares-based Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM). The direct and moderating effects of clothing involvement were tested by using the two-stage approach. The second-order formative measurement model of clothing involvement (hierarchical components model) was estimated using the repeated indicators approach. The results show that ethical self-identity and subjective norm have a significant impact in ethical clothing purchase decisions. Clothing involvement was found to weaken the relationship between ethical obligation and intention towards ethical buying, whilst it strengthened the relationship between ethical self-identity and intention towards ethical buying. This thesis further establishes that consumers' perceived balance between ethical self¬identity (commitment to individual's ethical augmentation) and clothing involvement (social identity and/or fashion identity) is a step towards bridging the ethical purchasing gap. This thesis is considered to make the following contributions to knowledge and theory in the domain of consumer ethical buying behaviour. First, the formulation of the conceptual model incorporating self-interest values and motives is an advancement of the existing ethical decision-making models for predicting consumer intention to purchase high-involvement ethical products. Second, this study reveals that product involvement plays a moderating role in the consumer ethical decision-making process. Finally, this study provides evidence for the mediating role of ethical obligation on the relationship between attitude and intention.

This study focuses on the emergence of Multimedia technology and its subsequent application and effects on Computer Aided Learning. The growing interest in the pedagogical possibilities offered by Multimedia technology has highlighted the need for research in order to investigate those properties of Multimedia that may have an impact on instructional outcomes. The review of the literature indicated the key research issues as being the design, implementation and evaluation of courseware using the new technology. It is these key issues that form the core of the research presented here. More specifically the overall outcome of the research has been the proposal of a holistic model for the design, implementation and evaluation of hypermedia learning tools. The main objectives supported by appropriate hypotheses were defined as: Proposing a design process model for hypermedia courseware. Developing Market Research by Multimedia (MRM). Evaluating MRM as a means of course delivery. Evaluating the MRM design. MRM was developed based on the proposed Design and Development Process Model (DDPM) and subsequently evaluated. Using a summative method of evaluation based on observation and pre/post tests, 186 students from Kingston University's BIT and BABS courses were selected and randomly divided into the following four experimental groups. Group A - traditional lectures and tutorials, Group B- MRM only, Group C combined traditional lectures and Multimedia tutorials, and Group D - the Open Learning group . . A holistic model for the design, implementation and evaluation of Multimedia based courseware is proposed. The resultant model proposes the following four stages in the development of hypermedia learning tools as: 1. Defining the Learning Objectives - this research provides strong evidence to indicate that hypermedia offers flexibility as a learning tool and could be successfully implemented in a variety of learning programmes including: delivering courses, used as a tutorial tool, or replace open learning modes of delivery. This study has provided empirical support to suggest that MRM as a means of course delivery is as effective as traditional lectures and tutorials and significantly better than the Open Learning mode. 2. Defining the Design Strategy - the design issues are addressed by the DDPM and deal with systems specification, design specification, implementation and evaluation. Based on the research findings it is recommended that ease of use should be the key objective of the design. 3. Defining the Implementation Strategy - this research recommends that prtor to use directives to hypermedia courseware users both in terms of their time management and their navigational style should be offered. 4. Defining the Evaluation Strategy - two main forms of evaluations could be considered Le. formative and summative depending on the evaluation objectives. This research recommends that 'observation' of learners using hypermedia learning tools through built-in tracking systems could provide educators with invaluable information about the way the system is used. This research makes three important contributions to the body of knowledge on hypermedia aided learning. Firstly it proposes a holistic model for design, implementation and evaluation of hypermedia learning tools, secondly it proposes the DDPM as a specific hypermedia design model and thirdly it evaluates HAL as a means of course delivery.

This study aims to contribute to the advancement of knowledge within the domain of strategic marketing, and more specifically positioning of services. In particular this research stems from an attempt to overcome the limitations of existing positioning typologies and models and the fact that current research on the subject matter fails to reflect the sequential nature of considerations related to the management of the positioning process. Consequently, the basic aim of this research is the development of a comprehensive framework that incorporates the various decisions and activities associated with the management of positioning and the generation of managerial guidelines, for the UK services industry. Following an extensive literature review, a conceptual framework that represents a synthesis of existing positioning models is proposed. Following the development of generic positioning strategies, the model is applied in the UK plastic card sector. As a result, a number of propositions are tested and managerial recommendations are put forward. Overall, this research makes the following theoretical, methodological and managerial contributions to the theory and practice of positioning activities within the plastic card services domain. Theoretical Contributions: This thesis offers a comprehensive positioning framework which could form the basis of further investigation into the subject matter. More specifically, the following theoretical contributions to the study of positioning have been made: This thesis has attempted to examine the varying descriptions attributed to the concept and as a result has clarified the concept and suggested three main themes (i.e. perspectives, key issues and dimensions) underpinning the concept. This research has put forward an empirically supported comprehensive positioning model. Methodological Contributions: This research has developed and validated a generic, consumer derived typology of positioning strategies. Operationalisation of positioning aim(s), objective(s) and the determination of LCS have been offered. An analytical procedure suitable for determining congruence between successive phases of the proposed model has been developed. The operationalisation of LCS in the model has been expanded in terms of additional dimensions. Managerial Contributions: This research has provided a set of clearly defined, managerial guidelines that practitioners can use when attempting to apply the concept of positioning.

The purpose of this thesis is to understand the marketing perceptions and practices of primary school managers, in response to attempts to introduce market forces into the provision of UK state education. The study has investigated marketing in primary schools through ten longitudinal case studies using three main sources of data: interviews with headteachers, and governors, participant observation, and market research of the perceptions of parents and other groups. Two groups of influences combined to make diverse and complex marketing micro-environments, which conditioned the impact of marketing activities initiated by the schools: i) the local provision of primary education (the capacity, sector and status of schools, and the image of the locality), and ii) the population profile of the catchment area (numbers of local pupils, parental perceptions and population types). A picture of marketing at the case study schools emerged which was different from the initial impression of a peripheral activity given by much of the literature, and headteachers' own accounts. Critical incident analysis revealed more extensive strategies and tactics which could be labelled as “marketing”, but which were not necessarily described as such by headteachers. Events and decisions triggered marketing activities directed at a number of targets which can be grouped into the priority order of: i) internal relationships (existing parents, pupils, staff, and governors), ii) recruitment markets (new parents and feeder institutions), iii) educational agencies (LEA, DfEE, OFSTED etc.), and iv) community relationships (local media, commercial sponsors and community groups). Individuals within these target groups positioned a school according to their perceptions of its academic and environmental reputation, its locality and their degree of involvement with it. Headteachers attempted to improve their schools' market position through a mix of methods which can be summarised as four I's - information, image building, involvement, and the influence of word-of mouth communications. Headteachers found that the most effective marketing strategies had two main components: i) marketing to improve relationships with existing parents, staff and governors was an essential precursor to any external marketing effort; and ii) marketing to targets other than prospective pupils was important in order to build up a supportive series of relationships in the micro-environment. In particular, parental involvement strategies to achieve marketing aims evolved as an acceptable response because they were not seen as overtly competitive, and they had a perceived educational value. Headteachers seemed to share many of the marketing problems of owner-managers of small businesses. The findings reported here suggest that the private sector may have lessons to learn from the marketing management of small public organisations such as primary schools, so that a more meaningful exchange of information across the sectoral divide is indicated.

With ever more enterprises holding most of their text documents electronically, this research considers the implications that follow and the opportunities that are created by this situation. It introduces the notion of intelligent document management through enrichment as a novel interpretation of the Push Technology paradigm and develops a conceptual model for a software assistant that can carry out this enrichment task. Such an Intelligent Document Enriching Assistant, IDEA, will perform simple reasoning to retrieve, automatically, previously stored text documents which are relevant to the task at hand. However, before such an assistant can actually be implemented, the underlying concepts, which are taken from a range of topics on which such an IDEA is founded, have to be researched and assembled. This is what is of concern here, namely the analysis of the background on which the IDEA is based, together with the development of its conceptual model. The implementation of this knowledge-based component does not form part of this work. The semantic content of the text document needs to be captured using a representation that is richer than simple key words, and is based on Speech Act Theory. For the development of the conceptual model for the IDEA, the CommonKADS method is used. The main deliverable of this method is the model of expertise, which describes the knowledge, and the reasoning capabilities needed to carry out the required enrichment task. The generic enrichment problem solving method is also developed. The underlying domain knowledge is taken from a Sales and Marketing scenario. This research answers the call for good practice in Knowledge Management that requires the development of new knowledge, making accessible new and existing knowledge, and distributing and combining knowledge. The IDEA is an example of how intelligence, through the provision of relevant information, can be realised within this context.

Over the last two decades, business-to-business (b-to-b) relationships have received considerable attention through the recognition that it is possible to increase profitability through relational (exchange governed by norms of long-tern co-operation, mutual satisfaction, trust and open communication) rather than discrete (exchange that is arms-length, short-term and centred on self-interest) exchanges. One of the construct's which has received considerable attention within the b-to-b exchange process is trust. Several studies have highlighted trust as a central construct in understanding, building, maintenance and growth of business relationships. The role of trust in business exchanges between large organisations has been extensively researched and reported. However, very little research has been undertaken in terms of the impact of trust in SME relationships. The proposed research attempts to contribute towards this omission. An approach utilising a modification of Ganesan's (1994) model of retailer's and, vendor's long-tern orientation that looks at the antecedents of trust and their effect on long-term orientation is adopted. Change to the model, as suggested by Ganesan (1994), is incorporation of behavioural antecedents (relational norms) of trust. The result is a testable model that has been applied for assessing the relative impact of cognitive and behavioural trust on the upstream (supplier) and downstream (customer) long-term orientation (LTD) in SMEs when they are engaged in overall/mutual, symmetric and asymmetric exchanges. Hence the model is tested within the relational set-up that involved 8MEs and other partner organisations (i.e., SMEs and Medium-to-large organisations). The analysis conducted at three relational levels showed the following key outcomes: 1. The overall upstream and downstream analysis (where SME was involved in both symmetric and asymmetric relationships) indicates a major overlap between the proposed research findings and reported trust findings (profoundly related to large organisation studies). There was clear evidence that both cognitive and behavioural trust lead to LTO. 2. Within the symmetric (i.e., SME-to-SME) relationship analysis there was clear evidence that it was the presence of cognitive trust that led to LTO. Therefore relationships were largely driven by the credible proof (i.e., reputation and skill) of suitability. 3. In asymmetric (i.e., Small to Medium-to-large organisation) relationship analysis there was no clear evidence of either cognitive or behavioural trust being determinant of LTO. However both transaction specific investments (cognitive trust antecedent) and flexibility (behavioural trust antecedent) had a significant effect on inter-organisational trust.

The primary purpose of this thesis is to provide a causal explanation of the emergence of the UK early music labour market. The labour market for early music performers was held to have appeared in the 1970s, when the early music movement established itself as a major cultural force in the UK. It is argued that current labour market theory has been hampered in its ability to explain this phenomenon because i) it has generally taken the view that labour markets “just exist”, and ii) because existing accounts are too often founded on conflationary theorising. The only way to offer a practically adequate causal explanation of this emergent phenomenon is to adopt an approach that can account for the transformational and stratified nature of social reality. Critical realism is introduced as the philosophical “underlabourer” for this research project, with Archer's (1995) morphogenetic method representing its methodological complement. Following an immanent critique of the labour market literature, I present a re-conceptualisation of the labour market and its emergence, drawing on a critique of the entrepreneurship literature and the process of qualification. This frames the empirical research of the emergent early music labour market, involving both intensive and extensive research. The outcome of the research takes the form of an analytical historical account. The temporal and relational emergence of the UK early music labour market is shown to depend upon a range of key causal configurations (including the presence/absence of funding and training; enterprising capabilities; incubation opportunities; and re-qualification). Two underlying causal mechanisms (the tendency towards transformation and the tendency towards standardisation) are highlighted. It is argued that the retroduction of these mechanisms represents a significant contribution to knowledge with respect to our understanding of labour markets, markets in general, and the process of entrepreneurship.