Organic insecticides play a big role in reducing the usage of chemical insecticides and their negative impact on the environment. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) spays are the only tool that organic farmers are allowed to use for the control of pests. Genetic engineering and modification of crops have been made possible with scientific advances in cell and molecular biology. These advances are used to transfer some of the Bt Cry toxins into crops for control of target species to reduce yield loss. Bt maize were commercialised for the first time in South Africa in 1998 and the economic important stem borers, Busseola fusca (Fuller) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) and Sesamia calamistis (Hampson) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) were exposed to the Cry1Ab toxin that is found in Bt maize. Busseola fusca developed resistance to Cry1Ab under field conditions within eight years after it had been released. Eldana saccharina (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) is a major pest on sugarcane in South Africa and although it has not been recorded on maize in this country, is it known as a major pest of maize in other African countries. African armyworm, Spodoptera exempta (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) has a very wide distribution in Africa and is known to be an occasional pest on maize. The aims of this dissertation were to determine the efficacy of Bt spray applications for control of four lepidopteran pests and whether development of Cry1Ab resistance by B. fusca caused a loss in susceptibility to other Bt toxins (i.e. cross-resistance). Susceptibility bioassays with 10 day old larvae were conducted under laboratory conditions. Treatments included application of various dosage rates of Dipel® and deltamethrin as well as exposure to MON810 (maize leaves). Stemborer populations of C. partellus, E. saccharina, and B. fusca (Venda) as well as the S. exempta were effectively controlled by the Bt spray, Dipel®. Care should be taken not be interpret the percentage C. partellus, E. saccharina and S. exempta larvae that survived after exposure to MON810 and Bt spray treatments as development of resistance without verification of these experiments with earlier instars that are known to be more susceptible. Spodoptera exempta is active throughout a year in temperate zones of Africa. If S. exempta develop resistance to Cry toxins and Bt maize events would be released for commercial planting in these areas, S. exempta pose a threat added to their injuriousness. Busseola fusca larvae were sampled from Venda (susceptible population), Ventersdorp and the Vaalharts Irrigation Scheme (resistant population). The Ventersdorp B. fusca population was controlled by MON810 and MON89034 and Bt sprays, but the percentage larvae that survived showed reduced susceptibility within the population. Dipel® treatments, MON810 and MON89034 did not provide effective control of the Vaalharts B. fusca population reported to be resistant to Cry1Ab, in two experiments. The high survival rates indicate a reduction in susceptibility to Cry toxins other than Cry1Ab and therefore development of cross resistance in the Vaalharts B. fusca population. / MSc (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The high-dose/refuge strategy is used globally to manage insect resistance development in genetically modified crops with insecticidal properties (Bt crops). The “refuge in a bag” (RIB) strategy is also being considered for deployment against several pest species. Busseola fusca, the target pest of Bt maize in South Africa, evolved resistance to Cry1Ab proteins. The objective of this study was to determine whether migrating B. fusca larvae are effectively controlled using the RIB strategy. A field study with a single-gene event (Cry1Ab) and a “pyramid” event (Cry1A.105 + Cry2Ab2) was conducted in which the migration patterns of B. fusca larvae in plots with different seed mixture treatments were studied. The experiment consisted of five seed mixture ratios (5%, 10%, 15%, 20% non-Bt seed and 100 % non-Bt seed as control). Natural infestation was augmented by artificial inoculation with neonate larvae into the central non-Bt maize plant of each plot. Rate of larval survival and migration, measured in terms of increase in number of plants per plot that exhibited borer damage was recorded at weekly intervals until flowering. A laboratory study was conducted to determine larval growth and survival when simulating migration between Bt and non-Bt maize plants. A feeding experiment in which larvae were reared on different types of maize (Bt and non-Bt) was conducted and larval survival and mass recorded after a 7-day feeding period. The incidence of damaged ears, stem damage and damaged internodes per stem were recorded and relationships between these variables determined by means of correlation analyses. A review was conducted in order to identify and discuss similarities and differences between the high-dose/refuge and seed mixture strategies. This was done to determine which strategy would be the most appropriate insect resistance management (IRM) strategy against B. fusca. The rate of survival and migration of B. fusca larvae was significantly higher in the plots with maize expressing Cry1Ab and control plots, than in plots with the pyramid Bt event. Older larvae exhibited improved growth and survival in the laboratory experiment when they were transferred from non-Bt to Bt plants. Positive correlations were found between early and late season damage, although some weaker than others. Plants of the “pyramid event” suffered less late-season damage than those of the single-gene event. Since the increase in number of damaged maize plants over time is associated with migration of older and larger larvae, the observed tendencies may indicate that the assumed high-dose does not kill larvae above a certain developmental stage. The high-dose refuge strategy seems to be the better option for delaying resistance development. / MSc (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The high-dose/refuge strategy is used globally to manage insect resistance development in genetically modified crops with insecticidal properties (Bt crops). The “refuge in a bag” (RIB) strategy is also being considered for deployment against several pest species. Busseola fusca, the target pest of Bt maize in South Africa, evolved resistance to Cry1Ab proteins. The objective of this study was to determine whether migrating B. fusca larvae are effectively controlled using the RIB strategy. A field study with a single-gene event (Cry1Ab) and a “pyramid” event (Cry1A.105 + Cry2Ab2) was conducted in which the migration patterns of B. fusca larvae in plots with different seed mixture treatments were studied. The experiment consisted of five seed mixture ratios (5%, 10%, 15%, 20% non-Bt seed and 100 % non-Bt seed as control). Natural infestation was augmented by artificial inoculation with neonate larvae into the central non-Bt maize plant of each plot. Rate of larval survival and migration, measured in terms of increase in number of plants per plot that exhibited borer damage was recorded at weekly intervals until flowering. A laboratory study was conducted to determine larval growth and survival when simulating migration between Bt and non-Bt maize plants. A feeding experiment in which larvae were reared on different types of maize (Bt and non-Bt) was conducted and larval survival and mass recorded after a 7-day feeding period. The incidence of damaged ears, stem damage and damaged internodes per stem were recorded and relationships between these variables determined by means of correlation analyses. A review was conducted in order to identify and discuss similarities and differences between the high-dose/refuge and seed mixture strategies. This was done to determine which strategy would be the most appropriate insect resistance management (IRM) strategy against B. fusca. The rate of survival and migration of B. fusca larvae was significantly higher in the plots with maize expressing Cry1Ab and control plots, than in plots with the pyramid Bt event. Older larvae exhibited improved growth and survival in the laboratory experiment when they were transferred from non-Bt to Bt plants. Positive correlations were found between early and late season damage, although some weaker than others. Plants of the “pyramid event” suffered less late-season damage than those of the single-gene event. Since the increase in number of damaged maize plants over time is associated with migration of older and larger larvae, the observed tendencies may indicate that the assumed high-dose does not kill larvae above a certain developmental stage. The high-dose refuge strategy seems to be the better option for delaying resistance development. / MSc (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014