This thesis examines the processes of cultural change during the early Roman (before c. AD 250) period in selected areas of Britain and Germany, namely western England and south-west Wales in Britain, and along the Lower Rhine in Germany. The distribution patterns of sites and specific categories of artefacts have been calculated using the extrapolative contour method of Kriging, as well as statistical methods in particular instances. In an attempt to move away from textually-driven descriptions of the Roman past, the resulting distribution patterns of rural sites, military disposition, ceramics, stamped brick and tile, and coinage were examined in terms of the concepts of structure and agency. The patterns of each study region were examined separately, before comparing the sites of Cirencester, Kenchester, and Frocester Court with the regional British patterns to investigate agency and structure at increasingly smaller scales, and to scrutinise the relationship between material culture, structure, and agency in greater detail. Although not always conclusive, the results suggest that such broad patterns can be used to form, at least, general deductions about the social, political, and economic structures of the Roman period. The results also emphasise the importance of comparing archaeological patterns from different provinces of the Empire.

This thesis discusses the Fauresmith of northern South Africa, a stone tool industry believed to contain contemporary Prepared Core Technology, Large Cutting Tools and blades, which is considered transitional between the Earlier and Middle Stone Ages. It further questions what this suggests about the nature of transitions as presently identified in the prehistoric record. Although ‘officially’ abandoned in 1965 the Fauresmith never fell completely from the literature and the last 20 years have seen it firmly re-appear in South African chronologies, and even more worryingly it has recently begun to be utilised as a chronotemporal marker. However, at no stage since Van Riet Lowe’s original publications, some 80 years ago, has it ever been fully described and there still remains no consensus on what the Fauresmith actually is. Presented here for the first time is primary lithic data analysis, attempting to offer the first detailed description of the Fauresmith as a beginning to understanding its place in South African archaeology. In order to achieve this nine Fauresmith sites where chosen that are all significant in both our developing understandings of the Fauresmith and in how it is presently comprehended. The cohesive Fauresmith material is then compared to the later Earlier Stone Age material from the Cave of Hearths bed III and earlier Middle Stone Age from the Cave of Hearths bed IV and Bushman Rock Shelter. Ultimately, doubts are raised as to the validity of the Fauresmith, and although some apparent Fauresmith sites could not be included in the analysis, for various reasons, several occurrences here are identified as mixed through erosive process, including the original Fauresmith type sites. Indeed, this study points attention to how knowledge transferred in an osmosis like manner has hindered our ability to critically comprehend our own methodological constructs. More fundamentally it raises concerns as to how transitions are presently problematised within prehistoric archaeology.

One of the most undertheorised and unimaginatively conducted aspects of Archaeological Heritage Management (AHM) is planning for on-site visitor movement. The identified under-theorisation and limitation of methodologies for assessing, conceiving and planning archaeological walks was the launching point of this research endeavour. This research aims to expand on Manovich’s notion of ‘augmented space’ in processes of dealing with visitor movement and archaeological walk planning. More specifically, it seeks to establish an interdisciplinary dialogue in order to identify the underexplored links between the visitor-archaeological site interaction, common practices, digital interventions, as well as conceptual planning in order to investigate the main following question: What does it mean to plan for visitor movement in archaeological sites in today’s technologically enhanced society? Further to this, it explores ways of how the aforementioned might work in synergy in assessing and planning interpretative archaeological walks. In order to achieve this dialogue, this research is drawing on well-established principles of AHM and interpretation via traditional and novel media, visitor mobility studies, architectural and media theory. In parallel, a variety of methods are explored and developed in order to support the main arguments of the thesis both on theoretical and evidence-based grounds. Based on the outcomes, this research addresses and challenges timely discussions on new theoretical directions, active engagements with heritage, informed creativity and creative solutions, for a strategic shift in dealings of research communities with cultural heritage sites and the public.

This thesis examines the economic and social implications of amphorae distribution in Roman Britain. The study reconsiders economic models on long-distance exchange developed in Classical History, following exclusively an archaeological perspective. Such an attempt required the introduction of new methods and techniques for the analysis of archaeological data and their economic interpretation. Consequently, the thesis presents original methodology for the study of pottery distribution, the results of which draw a completely different picture of Roman economy, at least, in the British Isles. The research contemplates the study of amphorae in the initial place of recovery, aiming to discover common patterns of disposal and consumption at local level. In addition, the amphorae distribution is examined at a larger scale since it covers the province of Roman Britain as a whole. This approach permits the linking of amphora distribution to populations, transport networks, purchasing power and exchange mechanisms according to the conditions in Roman times. The interpretation of distribution patterns at both levels is assisted with the support of Geographical Information Systems, in which a series of simulation models have been implemented. Amphorae evidence in Roman Britain represents the effect of long-distance exchange carried out by traders following a number of defined rules. The debate over the characteristics of these rules, also known as exchange mechanisms, becomes the objective in the present research. Therefore, the final theoretical proposals on the nature of long-distance exchange in Roman times can be considered the main contribution of this thesis.

The aim of this thesis is to provide a comprehensive study of prehistoric pottery throughout the region of Kent. Research will focus specifically on middle Bronze Age through to early/middle Iron Age pottery, a date range of approximately 1500 to 400 BC. The study of pottery offers a wealth of information relating to many aspects of the past and yet despite this, prehistoric pottery has been under-researched in Kent. A growing number of important pottery assemblages have been excavated and recent development-led archaeology has produced a great deal of new evidence from excavation and evaluation. This offers an important key to understanding the chronology and interpretation of settlement and burial sites. The basis of this study is to analyse pottery assemblages in order to develop an understanding of the societies who produced and consumed the ceramics, and to provide the foundation for a ceramic typological and chronological framework. This was undertaken through the study of some 77,000 pottery sherds from 66 sites across the region. The data was collected from personally recording and illustrating large assemblages of pottery sherds and by using data from ‘grey literature’, published reports and research by a number of pottery specialists. A form type series was devised, which demonstrates the range of pottery types present in Kent from the middle Bronze Age to early/middle Iron Age. A chronological sequence has been tentatively suggested, which is in need of refinement when more radiocarbon dates are available. A fabric series has been created and presents a brief summary of the types of fabrics used to make the vessels. Key areas were studied, namely, the production and distribution of the ceramics across Kent and how this compares to surrounding regions. Changes in both pottery form types and fabrics over 1000 years of potting history are evident and offer insights into the changing nature of social practises and settlement patterns. Consideration of how the ceramics have been deposited may also offer glimpses into the past, and also serve to highlight the complexities of site formation. This study contributes to a growing body of research on the prehistory of Kent. The limitations are also addressed and the scope for further research.

At the present time there is enormous opportunity to investigate the epigraphic assemblages of the Roman province of Baetica. The steady progression in the research and publication of the revised editions of the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum is providing a significant new study resource for the material which takes appropriate account of the archaeological contexts of the material wherever possible. This research takes full advantage of current advances in the epigraphic discipline, and brings the benefit of a fully contextualised archaeological methodology to a study of approximately 1000 Latin inscriptions from a selection of twelve towns predominantly located across the landscape of the lower and western Guadalquivir Valley in the Comunidad Autónoma de Andalucía of southern Spain. Discussion of the place of inscriptions within Roman towns is not new, but unique to this research is the way in which the methodology contextualises the material within its appropriate spatial, historical and social context. It builds upon a background of social theory to model the relationship between human society and its material culture in an attempt to identify a series of relationships not considered before with this material. Inscriptions are meticulously analysed for patterns of common behaviour in the way that they were designed and erected. More specifically, it identifies instances where these similarities extend beyond individual settlements, and conversely where individual settlements display distinctly unique characteristics that distinguish them from the other towns studied here. An understanding of the social context of inscriptions enables us to interpret the motivations stimulating the use of inscribed monuments throughout the study region. These are key to answering the question asked by this thesis, namely how the inscriptions from the urban communities of Early Roman Baetica reflect the interconnected nature of Baetican society and provide evidence for social connectivity throughout the study region.

This thesis seeks to answer a disarmingly simple question: what did it feel like to use an Etruscan pot? It does so through the development of a new methodology for ceramic analysis, created from a practical application of phenomenological thought to the Etruscan archaeological record. The Etruscan world of the Archaic period, approximately 650 to 450 BCE, would have been filled with images, colours, and sensations, fragments of all of which remain wrapped up in the pottery which was deposited in tombs and on domestic sites throughout the period. By analysing the experience of using such vessels, the thesis goes on to develop new interpretations of the role of pots and their contents in Etruscan society, particularly the Etruscan use of alcohol and the structure of formal feasting events. The presence of new pottery forms, with novel imagery imported from the Greek Eastern Mediterranean, provides a comparison which drives the analysis. By re-conceptualising these iconic imports as foci for Etruscan experiences, the relationship between these predominantly Attic ceramics and their Etruscan users is recast to emphasise the contrasts in ceramic usage brought in by these new vessels, and the shifts in behaviour, belief and banqueting that potentially accompanied them.

This thesis examines the megalithic chambers and associated buildings of the Neolithic period in north Wales. It is proposed that these buildings have been interpreted incorrectly through a reductionist paradigm which sees all formallydeposited human remains as funerary. The material in the study area is introduced, and placed into a historical context in terms of the history of archaeology in Wales, and a geographical context in terms of other NeolithiG evidence in the area. Three main explanatory discourses are identified which are considered to have determined a flawed interpretation: our own western understandings of and approaches to death; the understanding of the Neolithic period as an agricultural society based on kinship alliance and therefore involving an over-riding concern with notions of ancestry manifested through corpse treatment strategies; and the continued quest to identify the so-called 'origins' of megalithic chambers in earlier Neolithic societies outside of Britain. Having examined and critiqued these discourses in some detail, the thesis returns to a detailed consideration of material in the study area, examining the depositional acts undertaken at a number of excavated sites. This material is examined in terms of the differences apparent within it. In the concluding chapter, this analysis is continued and an attempt is made to postulate a number of possible meanings for megalithic chambers. It is argued that, when considered as a single class of monument, such buildings are not understandable in any way which may approach the diversity of meanings which they held during the Neolithic period.

This thesis examines the historical and archaeological data for the consumption of herring and the gadid fishes (primarily cod, haddock, whiting, ling and hake) as stored fish cured by salting, drying and smoking. The thesis is divided into three parts, in the first part the historical evidence for developing fisheries, storage methods, marketing and consumption is discussed with an evaluation of the nutritional changes to the fish as a result of storage. In part two factors affecting fish bone preservation and recovery are presented and the authors own recording criteria. A new methodology is introduced using the documented data for portions and rations from monasteries and the forces, showing herring and the gadids by volume offish eaten compared with the number of bones counted. Distribution of body parts as evidence for stored and fresh fish in the large gadids, hitherto only used to show processing is adapted for application to the data sample which largely represents consumption. In part three the 20 sites comprising the data sample are described. Portion and body part methods are applied to the herring and gadid bones from these assemblages. In the majority of sites herring predominate by number of bones, by portion cod becomes the primary fish in many cases. Evidence for stored cod, ling and hake were found by body part distribution in many assemblages. The results of this study have shown that the archaeological data when expressed as a volume of fish supports the historical evidence for cod as the prime fish among these species, both as fresh and stored. Fish assemblages transcribed into portion from bone numbers present fish as a volume of food and often relegate herring, excessively favoured by bone numbers, into a subsidiary position.

This thesis examines the classification of Palaeolithic lithic artefacts and their impact on our perception of Neanderthal and - to some extent - anatomically modern human behaviour. It is my contention that the classificatory systems used within European archaeology has shaped and perhaps misled our perception of this period. In this thesis a focus on materials from Germany - the Middle Palaeolithic of OIS 5 and 3, including those with leafpoints - is maintained to demonstrate the impact of the use of distinct typological systems i.e. the system devised by Bosinski and published in 1967 versus the French System Bordes. Germany is particularly relevant because of a lack of integration of its archaeological materials and their interpretation with the critical dialogue that exists within the French, British and American archaeological community. Although this is slowly changing and German archaeology is now more critical and interpretative, the lack of interpretation extant was particularly suitable for a critical analysis of the theories surrounding the late Middle Palaeolithic and Early Upper Palaeolithic, including supposed "transitional' archaeological complexes. In order to integrate the archaeology of OIS 5 and 3 with the pertinent archaeology of Europe the examination commences with a survey of the 'Mousterian debate' and the 'Human revolution' in chapters 2 and 3. However, the focus throughout is on the archaeological material and its classification; a survey of some of the materials supposed to derive form the *transitional" assemblages in France, Italy, Britain and Poland is thus supplied. In chapter 5 the assemblages from RoBdorf and Wahlen in Hesse are introduced in some detail providing a starting point for the discussion of the leafpoints of Germany in chapter 6 and other Middle Palaeolithic material in chapter 7. The relevance and focus on leafpoints in chapters 3, 4, 5 and 6 derives from the idea that they are markers of the "Human revolution' and therefore lend themselves specifically to an examination of the questions surrounding this debate in contrast to the Middle Palaeolithic variation encountered. A discussion follows in chapter 8 but conclusions are made throughout The contribution to the field of Middle Palaeolithic research and perceptions of the "Human revolution1 are several. On a basic level, this thesis provides an outline of the German Palaeolithic aggregating materials. These are often difficult to find in the UK and no modern comprehensive academic account exists in either German or English. This outline is supported by ample illustrations to facilitate that access (photos, drawings, original publications). A critique of the Bosinski system of typological classification is the focal point of the thesis. It becomes clear that the doubts expressed by Freund (1969) have indeed become true and that the system does not provide a fitting account of the archaeological record of Germany despite its persevering usage. While overall progress has been made within German archaeology no system to deal with the varied record has been developed and the question of Neanderthal behaviour, as opposed to that of modern humans, has been ignored. The critical examination of the German typological system leads to a new descriptive effort whereby five leafpoint group types replace the former Altmuhlian. This is not supposed to represent a typological but a descriptive system i.e. no culture-historical inferences are made, leading to a more detailed understanding of the archaeological record. This perspective of the archaeology, compared with the overall late Middle Palaeolithic record as well as possible 'transitional' archaeological complexes lead to the express view that more in-depth regional studies need to be conducted across Europe in order to address the question of late Neanderthal behaviour. For the moment they have to be recognised as skilful practitioners in diverse and extreme environments - a comparison with the pre-Gravettian, pre-artistic anatomically modern human is not feasible.