Past research has focused on aircraft wreck sites as historic entities with characteristics similar to any other archaeological site. The Phased Aviation Archaeology Research [PAAR] Methodology is the first study to examine historic aircraft wreck sites as unique, self-contained data sets. With a production total of nearly 500,000 units, combat aircraft represent one of the largest composite artefact classifications of the Second World War. Despite the vast production quantities, the number of archaeologically secure specimens has been drastically reduced by salvage, corrosion/decay and haphazard research. Improper research and conservation practices, usually employed by the enthusiastic but inexpert avocational aviation archaeology community, are responsible for much of the site attrition since the 1960s/1970s. Sites in close proximity to areas of human habitation have drawn thousands of hill walkers who encounter, handle and re-deposit aircraft wreck site artefacts. When combined with the media attention which often accompanies excavation of aircraft wrecks, the perceived ease of artefact identification in the internet age emboldens history enthusiasts to acquire aircraft debris without regard to the contextual integrity of air wreck sites. This dissertation addresses the lack of methodological rigour in the aviation archaeology sub-discipline through the development and application of the Phased Aviation Archaeology Research [PAAR] Methodology. Following a discussion of statutory protections for aircraft wreck sites in the United Kingdom, the practices and procedures of both avocational and professional organisations involved in aviation wreck investigations are examined. Taking into account the best practices of each of these communities, the proposed PAAR Methodology enhances standard archaeological methodology by establishing a systematic approach uniquely appropriate for the study of aircraft wrecks. By combining historical primary sources and modern archaeological and air crash investigative techniques to examine Second World War aircraft wreck sites, the PAAR Methodology both compensates for tourism induced site modification and provides a template for future resource management. Field surveys of eight Second World War wreck sites, including excavation of de Havilland Mosquito MM244 and Consolidated LB-30A AM261, assess the effectiveness of the PAAR Methodology.

This thesis is an account of social organisation in the Upper and Middle Thames Valley from the Late Bronze Age to the end of the Middle Iron Age, c.1150-100 BC. This is approached through the integration and synthesis of various different types of evidence, including houses and settlements; metalwork; pottery; depositional practices; human and animal remains; 'special deposits'; monuments; and landscape boundaries. Patterns have been found within each period that cross different types of evidence. These patterns relate to underlying internal social and conceptual logical systems. Qualitative and quantitative methods are used, and comparison between periods is an important feature of the analysis. This demonstrates the 'non-functional', culturally specific nature of many aspects of material under study and how it was treated in the past. The thesis begins with an exploration of the role that material culture plays in ways that people create identities and community relationships. The following four chapters each discuss the archaeology and interpret the social organisation of a different period. Much of the Late Bronze Age archaeology is characterised by two features: the repeated destruction and abandonment of objects, settlement and place; and the plain, undifferentiated nature of the material culture. It is argued that Late Bronze Age communities were relatively fluid; identity was not structured around lineage, and differences in status not particularly marked. In the Late Bronze Age, three distinct areas within the study region have been identified, each with differences in various types of material culture and depositional habits. The Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age Transition is argued to have been a truly transitional period between two distinct types of social organisation. In the Early Iron Age, ancestors were being increasingly identifed with, as material culture, settlements and hillforts were passed down and used by multiple generations. Ancient and foreign exotica were acquired and appear to have been employed in the negotiation of power relationships. Aspects of ritual practice and material culture were becoming more heterogeneous. The segregation of smaller, more distinct social groups continued in the Middle Iron Age, shown in part by the construction of boundaries around the household. Hillforts were a focus for deposition. The final chapter charts changes in various aspects of the archaeology before discussing process and causes of social change. A reassessment of the pottery chronology of the period is also included.

The aim of this thesis is to examine ritual action and identity formation in the funerary record of the South-Eastern Aegean during the Hellenistic period (late 4th – 1st centuries BC). Chapter 1 presents the aim, scope, originality, research context and methodology of the thesis. Chapter 2 provides the geographical background of the thesis along with the topographical features of the tombs and the cemeteries followed by a discussion on the deathscapes of the South-Eastern Aegean in Hellenistic times. Chapter 3 is a concise typological analysis of the tomb types in the islands and the mainland cities of the Rhodian peraea and Chapter 4 offers a contextual look into funerary and post-funerary ritual drawing from various types of evidence such as modes of disposal of the human body, monumental tomb architecture (tombs with funerary beds) and funerary monuments (cylindrical altars with decorations in relief) among others. In Chapter 5, I discuss several manifestations of individual and collective identity as inferred by the archaeological record, as far as this is possible, followed by a brief assessment of insularity and identity in the Hellenistic communities of the South-Eastern Aegean. Finally, chapter 6 offers a synopsised outline of the main themes explored in the thesis along with general and specific conclusions.

This thesis employs two approaches to investigate water stress at the early and mid Epipalaeolithic site of Kharaneh IV in the Azraq Basin, Jordan. Firstly, the archaeobotanical analysis explores the local environment by using the ecology of identifiable charred seeds to indicate water availability (autoecology). Included alongside this is a seed catalogue, which presents the unique archaeobotanical assemblage recovered through sampling. Secondly, to further explore the local palaeoenvironment and due to the potential broad hydrological tolerances of some species, stable carbon isotope δ13C analysis of the archaeobotanical remains is used to track changes in water stress during the occupation of the site. These analyses provide a complementary approach to traditional archaeobotanical studies. Combined, these data offer considerable insight into questions about the local environment, particularly water stress, and the potential use of plants during the occupation of Kharaneh IV. The results presented here demonstrate that Kharaneh IV experienced variable water stress throughout its occupation, with a drying out of the site coincident with the end of occupation. This signature of drying is found within both the isotopic and autoecological analyses, providing multiple lines of evidence for this pattern. This thesis serves as a case study for the usefulness and inferential power of multi-method approaches that combine archaeobotanical and isotopic analysis.

This thesis investigates lifeways of medieval Christian communities from Portmahomack, Northeast Scotland and Norton Priory, Northwest England, to ascertain the extent to which skeletal indicators of diet, disease or trauma reflect religious or social influences. Osteology and palaeopathology methods on human adult and sub-adult skeletons from Portmahomack (6th to 17th century) and Norton Priory (12th to 16th century) was undertaken to provide evidence relating to the four key themes proposed in this study: ‘biological or familial affinity’, ‘the living environment’, ‘trauma and conflict’, and ‘diet and nutrition-related stresses’. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of bone collagen from adult humans from Portmahomack (including and a sub-sample of sub-adults) and Norton Priory were measured for dietary reconstructions. Faunal bone collagen was also analysed from Portmahomack and Norton Priory (plus a selection of fish bones from Chester Cathedral) to provide isotopic baselines to reconstruct human diets. The results suggest past lifeways of Christian communities from Portmahomack and Norton Priory can indeed be successfully reconstructed through bioarchaeology. The evidence from this study has found that skeletal traits, alongside burial evidence, can elucidate familial affinities, especially from Norton Priory, and that differences in cultural and religious practices are reflected within the living environment of ecclesiastic and lay groups. Evidence of violence, reflecting interpersonal conflict and vulnerability was found from both Portmahomack and Norton Priory, which was inconsistent with the role of ecclesiastic and lay communities that were expected to follow strict Christian doctrines. Stable isotope data revealed a diachronic change in diet at Portmahomack; no fish were consumed during the monastic period, whereas significant amounts were consumed by layfolk in the later periods, suggesting Christian dietary practices changed over time. The isotope data from Norton Priory reflected a more homogeneous diet that did not change greatly over time, suggesting conformity to the same fasting practices. Overall, this study has demonstrated that adopting a multidisciplinary bioarchaeological approach, integrating skeletal, chemical, archaeological, and historical evidence, results in a powerful research tool that enables reconstructions of medieval Christian lifeways and interpretations of religious and social influences therein.

The Neolithic in the Near East was a crucial transitional period, evidencing the appearance of the world’s first permanent farming villages, alongside significant changes in social structure, subsistence and artistic expression. This thesis focuses on an enigmatic artefact type; small, geometric clay objects, or “tokens”. “Tokens” appear in the 10th millennium BC, and by the late Neolithic they are present in abundance at large numbers of sites across the region, yet absent at others. The timing of the appearance of “tokens” is significant; however, until recently, the potential importance of these objects was often unrecognised. Schmandt-Besserat’s research (1992a, 1992b, 1996) represents the only comprehensive study on the subject. She claims “tokens” are mnemonic recording devices, appearing to meet the administrative needs of the first sedentary farming communities, eventually developing into the world’s earliest known written script. Though her interpretation is widely accepted, her evidence hails entirely from sites distant in space and time from where these objects initially appeared, and there is no solid evidence supporting the notion that Neolithic “tokens” formed a unified agricultural administrative framework. This thesis considers the classification, form and function of “tokens”, as well as their temporal and spatial distribution across sites, their find contexts and the relationship between them, sealings and stamp seals. It re-evaluates the validity of Schmandt-Besserat’s theory alongside alternative interpretations, including children’s toys, gaming pieces, administrative counting aids, and more complex accounting tools. Almost 3,000 “tokens” from three well documented case-study sites (Boncuklu Höyük, Çatalhöyük, Tell Sabi Abyad) and twenty less complete assemblages were studied in detail, recording their shape, dimensions, manufacture, use-wear, the find contexts, associated objects and the characteristics of the sites where they are found. This was complimented by a broader level survey charting the presence, number or absence of “tokens” at fifty-six additional sites. This study has shown that there is no correlation between “token” distribution according to region, time period, site size, or on-site activities. The range of shapes, degree of standardization and assemblage composition varies greatly from site to site, with little regional, temporal or other correlation. Variability is also evidenced in the nature of sites yielding “tokens”, and the immediate contexts in which they are found (e.g. refuse contexts, domestic contexts, administrative contexts, possible ritual contexts). Their generally large numbers when present, variability of deposition, high proportion found in disposal contexts, their simple shape and often crude appearance proves “tokens” were quickly and easily made, and disposed of as readily. All evidence supports the interpretation of “tokens” as multi-functional artefacts, fulfilling a variety of uses within and across settlements. Though sometimes used in accounting, they were not created to administer agricultural produce and were not part of a unified symbolic system. As objects they operated with fluidity of function and interpretation, with imbued value and meaning.

The United States government makes a solemn promise to the men and women of the armed forces that if they fall on the field of battle their remains will be returned home. Americans demand that this occur in order for the individual to be properly honored. This commitment and corresponding expectation applies to both current and past conflicts. The Joint Prisoner of War/Missing in Action Accounting Command (JPAC) is responsible for locating, recovering, and identifying the approximately 90,000 American military personnel who remain missing from the beginning of World War II through to the end of the Vietnam War. To help increase the rate of identifications, this thesis builds a model that predicts where human remains will be found within WWII bombardment and cargo aircraft crash sites based upon each individual duty station. The JPAC’s previously resolved loss incidents were critically examined, working through the identification process in reverse. This allowed for the determination of where each crew member was recovered from within their respective crash sites in relation to the corresponding wreckage. Hypotheses are developed for each crew position within the aircraft based upon the patterns observed. The validity of these predictions is then tested against an additional case for each category of aircraft. Results show that bombardment aircraft crew members will be found within approximately 8 m of their assigned duty station and that the distribution of all cargo aircraft personnel mirrors that of the cockpit wreckage. For the cases in this thesis, it is determined that the physics of the crash, not the actions of the crew or subsequent erosion, that primarily dictates where individuals will be found within a crash site. This research is contextualized within archaeology as a discipline, the broader conversation of conflict archaeology by filling a gap in the current historical and archaeological literature, evaluating JPAC’s impact on the heritage of material culture, and this type of research can provide temporal and cross-cultural insight into people’s interactions with the battlefields and crash sites. Finally, weak points within the JPAC’s identification processes are highlighted and recommended solutions provided.

The subject of Crusader-period Transjordan has still not been analyzed in depth by scholars. Nevertheless, this region, the Lordship of Crac and Montreal of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, is usually assumed to have had more or less the sole function of serving as the southeastern frontier of the kingdom, consisting essentially of a series of fortified points defending a border. This image of a series of castles in a largely deserted border area arises from several factors: the relative scarcity of textual sources available for 12th-century Transjordan, those that survive being largely focused on its military aspects; the scarcity of archaeological excavations at 12th-century sites, including the important castles of Karak and Shawbak; the fact that these two castles, being relatively well preserved, have attracted more scholarly interest than any other sites; and the lack of archaeological comparanda for the region, due to the only very recent development of interest of archaeologists in excavating medieval sites. The goal of the research exposed here is therefore to combine all available sources, including updated results from archaeological projects, in order to present a picture of settlement in Crusader Transjordan that is as complete as possible. A case study for Petra and the Jabal Shara is included in this work, since this area was intensely settled in the 12th century and currently offers new evidence from recent archaeological excavations. The conclusions from this research have provided information on the dynamics, variety and timing of settlement in the region, on the importance of the various settlements, on socio-economic aspects, and on the significance of Transjordan for the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem. Finally, this study provides some archaeological tools for better identifying the 12th century in the Petra region, in particular through the more precise characterization of local ceramics and building techniques.

This thesis considers the perception of maritime space in the SW Aegean area of Greece during the Late Bronze Age, analysing and linking issues of coastline morphology and harbour location and maritime ideology. Drawing heavily on the concept of the maritime cultural landscape, the thesis reviews the state of knowledge about the nature of coastal settlement during the Mycenaean period in the SW Aegean and how the coastline has altered since antiquity due to geomorphological processes. The thesis presents the results of a coastal and offshore (snorkeling) survey carried out along several stretches of coast in Messenia and Laconia in the Peloponnese, the island of Kythera and in West Crete with the aim of assessing the location of possible harbours/anchorages dating to the Late Bronze Age. These results are compared with those available for comparable harbour locations in the Cyclades, Central and East Crete, the Dodecanese, East Aegean and parts of Italy dating to the Late Bronze Age period. The survey included the coastal sites of Pavlopetri and Epidauros Limera in the South Peloponnese and Kastelli, Chania and Phalasarna in West Crete. In the research presented in this thesis, harbours/anchorages of the Late Bronze Age should be considered as located at promising ancient sandy beaches, river outfalls and promontories. As there are no stone built harbour structures the default landing place was the beach. This thesis adopts a maritime perspective, viewing the coastal littoral from the sea. It examines various parameters including natural processes on the coast and hinterland that were, and remain, vital to the connectivity of cultures through the sea during the Late Bronze Age and thereafter. The intention is to contribute to a fuller understanding of seascapes and the maritime cultural landscape as seen through the evidence of potential harbours, and to gain insight into how maritime space may have impacted on the issue of harbour installations in the Late Bronze Age Aegean world.

The following thesis presents the three-dimensional digital documentation methods and modelling approaches used during the excavation and post-excavation research phases of the Newport Medieval Ship Project. The primary case study is the Newport Medieval Ship, a large clinker-built merchant vessel discovered in 2002 in Newport, Wales, United Kingdom. The use of accurate and efficient three-dimensional digital recording methodologies has allowed for the development of innovative approaches to organising, analysing, modelling and disseminating data about the individual timbers and the overall original hull form. The utilisation of advanced digital technology and engineering, in the form of Rhinoceros3D modelling software, contact digitising and rapid prototyping has enabled the project to develop and test a variety of new methodologies for documenting and reconstructing ancient vessels. Results of the individual ship timber documentation and modelling methodologies are presented, along with analysis and comparison to more traditional documentation and reconstruction approaches. Additionally, the thesis examines the changing philosophical or conceptual approaches to hull form recording and reconstruction research over the last 200 years, and focuses in detail on the last 20 years of the rapidly evolving field of digital documentation in nautical archaeology.