In the Late Neolithic of south-east Europe, c. 5000 cal BC, a new form of burial practice appeared, as communities started to bury their dead in discrete extramural cemeteries. At the same time as this new formal burial practice, we see an increase in the number of grave goods placed with burials. There was a greater interest in the expression of identity through objects in the mortuary realm. This change was not simultaneous across the region of south-east Europe. It took two different trajectories, one in the Lower Danube and Black Sea coast region (the eastern region) and another in the Carpathian Basin (the western region). In the eastern region, cemeteries appear as discrete formal areas to bury the dead suddenly, c. 5000 cal BC, in stark contrast to the unknown burial practice that preceded it. In the western region, settlement burial in groups became the norm first, before fully extramural cemeteries appeared c. 4400 cal BC. This thesis analyses a number of these first cemeteries from both regions, looking at who was buried in them and what they were buried with. It is interested in what was being expressed about individual and social identity in the mortuary context. It uses correspondence analysis to look for patterns within the grave goods which may reveal specific social identities, such as age grades, gender or status. It concludes that the expression of difference through the body was an important part of the emergence of cemetery use. Furthermore, it provides new data about the timing of cemetery emergence by radiocarbon dating the Romanian cemetery site of Cernica.

This thesis investigates new approaches to analysing and interpreting the spatial structure of pre-Columbian cultural landscapes in the eastern La Plata basin, through two case studies the upper watershed of the Río Paraná, Misiones province, Argentina. Drawing on ‘non-site’ and ‘distributional’ archaeological theory to establish a robust spatial framework, the first case study concerns the organization of lithic technology in a sample constructed from survey data recorded during June and July 2013 in Eldorado Department. Point pattern data, combined with a desk-based analysis of stone tools, forms the baseline for the application of a family of spatial statistical analyses of surface archaeology derived from Ripley’s K function, and supported by Monte Carlo simulation. These methods succeed in detecting significant technological trends at multiple spatial scales. The results are interpreted as a long-term accumulation of material deposited through different systems of land use, which overlap and blend in a palimpsest of occupational events that are irreducible to their individual episodes. The findings imply that the notion of archaeological ‘sites’ is unfit for the purpose of studying past cultural processes in the region. The results also show that surface data possess significant potential for generating new insights on pre-Columbian settlement patterns in both Misiones and its broader regional context. In the second case study, the role of monumental architecture in the later pre-Columbian period of Misiones is investigated with a geospatial model. It tests the emergence of territoriality among southern proto-Jê groups as a function of differential access to mound and enclosure complexes. Through a computational approach that combines archaeological and simulated random data, the model is able to discern different hierarchical modalities of accessibility to a sample of southern proto-Jê funerary earthworks. The results demonstrate that the model succeeds in characterizing hereto unknown patterns of structured mobility that existed in relation to these distinctive elements of the later Holocene built environment. Together with a focused point process model using a larger sample of monuments from Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, these efforts demonstrate that employing quantitative methods allow archaeologists to move from conceptual models to robust explanatory frameworks in the context of understanding pre-Columbian socio-political complexification. In sum, it is argued that standard practice of collecting and interpreting surface data in the wider study region fundamentally mischaracterizes the variability, temporality, and spatial scale of this record. Adopting non-site methods and theory offers a solution to this problem. The approaches are evaluated in the Alto Paraná study area in terms of the new interpretative perspectives they enabled. New avenues of enquiry for research aiming to reconstruct past land use are presented based on the findings, including specific improvements concerning survey method and integrating excavated data.

Research into roman archaeology has focussed around the study of romanization, whether implicitly or explicitly. This discourse is increasingly criticized as overly constricting; yet proffered alternatives seem unable to break away from its language and underlying prejudices. In this thesis, romanization and the exploration of change are rejected, along with the fundamental opposition of 'roman' and 'native'. It is proposed that a synchronic exploration of social practice will offer an alternative avenue for understanding the spread of roman power. This thesis offers a series of urban case studies from Spain and Britain, through which the question of social identities is explored. The material analysed consists of the public buildings and the epigraphic record, both treated as material culture implicated in social practice. The idea of power as a dialectic is explicit throughout. A series of themes are addressed; these are traditionally seen as fundamental to the process of romanization. Here they are viewed as written into the fabric of the town: they are recreated through the frequent, repetitive actions of the members of these communities; in turn, they also seen to constrain the possibilities of action. These themes are the ideology of urbanism, the ideology of the emperor as supreme political authority, and religion. Detailed analysis reveals how these permeate the daily experiences of the peoples of the empire. Finally, the'topic of differential experience is explored: that roman identity fragmented through other aspects of social identity, and that these are reproduced within the urban setting. This thesis demonstrates that there was no paradigm of being roman; but that it included within it a myriad of different experiences, and that the very structures which recreated Roman power also served to explode its unity. It offers a useful perspective on roman identities.

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This thesis presents the results of an investigation into the Clactonian assemblages of Middle Pleistocene souther Britain. By exploring other non-biface assemblages (NBAs) reported from elsewhere in Europe it seeks to illuminate our understanding of the British assemblages by viewing them in a wider context. It sets out how the historical and geopolitical context of Palaeolithic research has influenced what is investigated and how, as well as interpretations of assemblages without handaxes. A comparative study of the assemblages themselves based upon primary data gathered specifically for that purpose concludes that while there are a number of non-biface assemblages elsewhere in Europe the Clactonian assemblages do appear to be a phenomenon unique to the Thames Valley in early MIS 11. However, traditional explanations for this phenomenon, such as cultural variation, cultural migration and pioneer populations are challenged and a new interpretation centred on the concept of a default flaking pattern is proposed.

Neanderthals in Western Europe are associated with a plethora of stone tool assemblages and their internal variation has been linked to different causal factors and behavioural interpretations. This thesis presents a new contribution to the study of Middle Palaeolithic variability by focusing specifically on the Late Middle Palaeolithic period (MIS 5d-3) and the typo-technological, spatial and temporal differences amongst bifacially worked tools. Currently, in Western Europe distinct types of Late Middle Palaeolithic bifacial tools are associated with two macro-regional entities, the Mousterian of Acheulean Tradition (MTA) and the Keilmessergruppe (KMG). These two entities, centred in Southwestern France and Germany, also link to two different research traditions which use a variety of competing terms, typologies and definitions. This study uses a new classificatory approach to overcome these epistemological issues and facilitates for the first time wider-scale comparisons, incorporating the regions located in between the MTA and KMG core areas. Bifacial tools from 14 key assemblages were analysed through an extensive attribute analysis, creating a database with primary data for 1,303 bifacial tools. This data was then incorporated with other published site information allowing for a detailed assessment of both the typo-technological characteristics of the bifacial tools and their variability. Firstly, the results indicate that genuine differences exist among Late Middle Palaeolithic bifacial tool assemblages regardless of the classificatory framework. Secondly, exploration of the data using three different scales of analysis allowed for the recognition of different variation patterns and interpretations. At a micro-scale, it is clear that a large amount of typo-technological variability exists among Late Middle Palaeolithic bifacial tools, which can mainly be attributed to differences in local conditions, such as raw material and function. At a macro-scale the MTA/KMG dichotomy was confirmed by a distinct divide between classic handaxes and backed bifacial tools west and east of the Rhine. Additionally, a third entity, the Mousterian with bifacial tools (MBT), is located in between the MTA and KMG core areas and contains a wide variety of bifacial tools, including MTA and KMG types. At a meso-scale, several previously identified regional entities were merged into the MTA and MBT, but specific spatio-temporal units do exist, e.g. bout coupé handaxes in MIS3 Britain. At both this meso-and macro-scale the observed patterns cannot be explained merely by referring to differences in local settings, but require an additional sphere of interpretation, argued here to be culture. The MTA and KMG can be seen as two distinct cultural traditions, reflecting different lines of learned behavior, as expressed by different ways of making bifacial tools. The sporadic spread of KMG elements across Western Europe is indicative of Neanderthal population dynamics and the MBT is interpreted as the results of MTA-KMG interactions in an overlap zone where foreign influences were more easily absorbed. Finally, the distinct presence and absence of certain bifacial tool types in specific regions allow to argue for the presence of a collective cultural capacity among Neanderthals.

This thesis explores the distribution of the data collected by the Portable Antiquities Scheme (PAS), which records archaeological artefacts recovered by members of the public, many of whom are metal detector users. With over 780,000 artefacts recorded onto an online database, it is not surprising that the PAS data have become an essential part of many research projects. However, until now there has been little work on the biases that are inherent in the data, in particular the effect of sampling bias on the distribution of finds. The thesis is grounded in discussions of sampling theory and collection bias, and suggests that bias can enter the archaeological record in seven stages (burial/loss, preservation, survival, exposure, recovery, reporting, and recording). A range of the factors contained within these stages are explored through three study areas (the Isle of Wight, Hampshire, and Northamptonshire). Within each area the distribution of PAS artefacts is first compared to the known distribution of past human activity, and then to a range of physical and man-made landscape features. Six case studies are used to explore specific elements in more detail, to focus the analysis on those factors that have the most impact on the distribution of finds. These statistical and spatial analyses are supported by a survey of metal detecting methods, which uses primary and secondary sources to explore the impact of different attitudes, experience, and techniques on the distribution of finds. This research identifies a series of choices made by collectors, recorders and landowners, that are shown to have most influence over the distribution of PAS finds – these range from ‘where to search’, through ‘what to recover’, to ‘what to report’. This research shows how an understanding of these choices is essential for those wanting to incorporate the PAS data into their research.

Maritime archaeologists are increasingly required to investigate important sites in a nondestructive manner. Therefore, this thesis aimed to adapt and apply sub-bottom acoustic techniques to shallowly buried shipwrecks and submerged palaeo-landsurfaces. The imaging of archaeological sites requires a geophysical source with high resolving power. A model was developed to determine the vertical resolution of the Chirp sub-bottom profiler, the source used throughout this thesis. The horizontal resolution, on the other hand, was determined by modelling the directivity pattern of an array of Chirp transducers. The results were then used to choose a suitable Chirp sweep to image shallowly buried objects. Three sites were selected to test the ability of the system to image, reconstruct and characterize archaeological material. The first site comprised of a shipwreck buried within muddy riverine sediments: the Grace Dieu (1418). The survey utilized both a 2D- and 3D-Chirp system. In both cases, the source was pushed over the site by divers. Close survey line spacing, accurate navigation and decimeter-scale resolution data enabled the construction of a pseudo- and full 3D-image of the site. In the second site, the Yarmouth Roads Wreck (16th century), an acoustic blanking zone, a consequence of the highly attenuating character of degraded wood, was detected and used to create maps of the buried remains. The final site concentrated on the detection of peat layers in the English Channel, which are crux to palaeo-landscape reconstructions. Results suggest that peat buried in fine to medium grained sediments has an easily identifiable acoustic signature. The seismic data acquired for the aforementioned case studies was subsequently used for quantitative studies of the buried material. Firstly, reflection coefficients were calculated and used to determine the degradation state of the hull remains. Secondly, the Quality factor was calculated for the Yarmouth Roads Wreck site to objectively demonstrate the highly attenuating character of degraded wood buried in sediments in comparison to the surrounding sediments. Overall, this PhD has demonstrated the potential of the Chirp sub-bottom system for archaeological purposes, by creating (pseudo-) 3D reconstructions and making object characterization possible.

Western museum displays of Egyptology are in need of an overhaul. The study of the ancient Egyptian past and the methods by which museums represent this past are affected by over two hundred years of Western tradition. This tradition, founded in a time of nation-building, led to the establishment of a narrow set of understandings of ancient Egypt. Focused on elite individuals, death and religious practices, early Egyptological scholarship and museum display created an environment in which the public could do little more than stare in awe. While distancing ancient Egypt from the familiar, Western ownership acted as a symbol of power within eighteenth century politics. Claiming the world’s greatest ancient civilisation for its own, the West divorced living Egyptians from this heritage through powerful Orientalising discourse which denied them links with the ancient culture since the coming of Islam. Today, the strength of these first associations is still evident in Egyptology museum displays, which prioritise elite lifestyles and death above more accessible daily life narratives and continue to ignore Egyptian perspectives on the past. This thesis, therefore, presents new strategies for the exhibition of ancient Egypt in Western museums that can cut through traditions of exclusion and incorporate daily life and contemporary perspectives into understandings of Egypt. I begin by discussing the theoretical context of collaborative archaeology and the historical position of Western Egyptology display. From here I disclose my three-part methodology. Part one involves collaboration with the modern Egyptian community to address perceptions of ancient Egypt and to promote Egyptian solutions to outdated Western modes of Egyptology display. Part two extends the collaborative approach to incorporate Western museum visiting communities’ understanding of Egypt, ancient and modern, and incorporate further suggestions for museological change. Part three contextualises the Egyptian and museum visitors’ views through a detailed visual analysis of the state of current Western Egyptology display. The results of these three areas of analysis are brought together to propose an emotive, multi-voiced, cross-temporal, creative methodology as the means by which a disciplinary shift can be achieved. Centred on the unification of art and artefact, ancient and modern, Egypt and West, life and death, the incorporation of contemporary Egyptian art into Egyptology display is offered as a route out of museological stasis that acknowledges the benefit of diversifying the voices involved in the interpretation of the past, finds resonance with the lives of Egyptians and Western museum visitors today, and is in-keeping with the ethics of twenty-first century museology.

The discipline of archaeology has long been plagued by the problem of how to adequately publish its results within financial limits and reasonable time spans. It has been recognized for some time that archaeological data is multimedia in its nature and that hypermedia publishing may offer a solution to some of the discipline's problems. Previous examples of such electronic publication in archaeology have required extensive input in computing time which is expensive and has not speeded up the publication process. This work is based on the concept that by using hypermedia technology which allows archaeologists to 'slot' their data into a system with relative ease from the start of the postexcavation process, instead of later on in the publication stage, the effort required to compile and complete the electronic archive can be reduced dramatically. A thorough examination of the postexcavation process revealed several key requirements for such a computer tool that would be applicable during post-excavation to enable later publication in the electronic medium. The need for flexibility, requiring no change in established working practices and data structures used was identified as being particularly important. To address this problem and provide a tool that could address archaeology's requirements the principles of open hypermedia were investigated. Its high degree of flexibility, preservation of original data files and the possibility of modular extensible program architecture indicated that it provided part of the solution required. The open hypermedia system Microcosm, developed at the University of Southampton, was used to produce an electronic excavation report and archive. The main part of this work consisted of adapting Microcosm to archaeological requirements by adding three Microcosm filters specially written for his project. The system was tested on a sample archive consisting of the published report and archive of the excavations at St.Veit Klinglberg in Austria. This key study is made available in the electronic format on CD-ROM with this thesis. The approach taken here has contributed to the application of multimedia in archaeology in four areas. Firstly it recognized the need and provided a prototype for an overall tool for the compilation of hypermedia archives that would be universally applicable through the archaeological community. Secondly it has successfully addressed the need for flexibility required for this tool, databases and data sets can be incorporated regardless of their specifics. Specifically archaeological requirements for hypermedia have been identified, in particular the need to enable multiple linking, allowing the information for more than on item of interest to be displayed simultaneously and in conjunction. Finally, this work shows that the successful provision of an electronic excavation archive with a report is possible and could reduce the cost and time scale of the post-excavation process.