Summary: Written, visual and material evidence demonstrates that the indigenous and immigrant peoples of nineteenth century New Zealand both retained aspects of their traditional burial practices and forms of memorialisation while modifying others in response to their new environmental and social contexts. Maori had developed a complex set of burial rituals by the beginning of the nineteenth century, practised within the framework of tangihanga. These included primary and secondary burial and limited memorialisation, with practices varying between iwi. Change and continuity characterised the development of Maori burial practices and materials, translated traditional practices into new materials, and new practices into traditional materials. Although urupa came to appear more European, they were still firmly embedded in the framework of tangihanga and notions of tapu. The nineteenth century settlement of New Zealand occurred at a time of transition in British burial practices, with the traditional churchyard burial ground giving way to the modern cemetery. The predominantly British settlers transplanted both institutions to the colonial context. The cemeteries, churchyards and burial grounds created in nineteenth century New Zealand were influenced by a great number of factors. These included the materials available, the religious and ethnic make up of settler society, regionalism, economic ties, major events, political and social conditions, means of establishment and function. These processes, events, and influences resulted in a rich yet neglected material culture of urupa, cemeteries, churchyards, burial grounds and lone graves which are today valuable components of our historic and cultural landscapes. Portions of this heritage have already been lost through decay and destruction. Neglect is now the major threat. Part of this neglect is due to the fact that we do not understand our cemeteries, what they show, how and why they have developed over time. Neglect is also engendered by cultural perceptions of what is valuable. While Maori regard urupa and burial places as toanga and sacred sites, Pakeha have tended to ignore their historic cemeteries. Such attitudes have been reflected and enforced by the policy of external agencies such as the New Zealand Historic Places Trust. New Zealand�s nineteenth century cemeteries have a great but under-utilised research potential, which it is important to recognise if we wish to preserve them.

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Summary: Written, visual and material evidence demonstrates that the indigenous and immigrant peoples of nineteenth century New Zealand both retained aspects of their traditional burial practices and forms of memorialisation while modifying others in response to their new environmental and social contexts. Maori had developed a complex set of burial rituals by the beginning of the nineteenth century, practised within the framework of tangihanga. These included primary and secondary burial and limited memorialisation, with practices varying between iwi. Change and continuity characterised the development of Maori burial practices and materials, translated traditional practices into new materials, and new practices into traditional materials. Although urupa came to appear more European, they were still firmly embedded in the framework of tangihanga and notions of tapu. The nineteenth century settlement of New Zealand occurred at a time of transition in British burial practices, with the traditional churchyard burial ground giving way to the modern cemetery. The predominantly British settlers transplanted both institutions to the colonial context. The cemeteries, churchyards and burial grounds created in nineteenth century New Zealand were influenced by a great number of factors. These included the materials available, the religious and ethnic make up of settler society, regionalism, economic ties, major events, political and social conditions, means of establishment and function. These processes, events, and influences resulted in a rich yet neglected material culture of urupa, cemeteries, churchyards, burial grounds and lone graves which are today valuable components of our historic and cultural landscapes. Portions of this heritage have already been lost through decay and destruction. Neglect is now the major threat. Part of this neglect is due to the fact that we do not understand our cemeteries, what they show, how and why they have developed over time. Neglect is also engendered by cultural perceptions of what is valuable. While Maori regard urupa and burial places as toanga and sacred sites, Pakeha have tended to ignore their historic cemeteries. Such attitudes have been reflected and enforced by the policy of external agencies such as the New Zealand Historic Places Trust. New Zealand�s nineteenth century cemeteries have a great but under-utilised research potential, which it is important to recognise if we wish to preserve them.

Thesis (M.A.)--Texas State University--San Marcos, 2009. / Vita. Appendix: leaves 71-86. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 87-94). Also available on microfilm.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Hong Kong, 2005. / Title proper from title frame. Also available in printed format.

Archaeologically excavated historic cemeteries are a unique and largely untapped dataset for answering questions about past populations using empirical methods. One such question centers around the assumptions that infant mortality was high in societies without modern fertility control and that infant remains are more likely to be poorly preserved and recovered from archaeological contexts than adult bones. To assess this, excavated osteological populations of European descent from historic cemeteries (1600-1950 AD) were studied for their age composition as compared to historical records and Model life tables. These datasets were then considered in their taphonomic contexts to determine which factors most affect preservation and recovery. The resulting calculation of the mortality and preservation of each population were compared statistically with traditional high mortality estimates, and appliedexperimentally to cemetery populations with an unknown number of infants and children. Osteologically derived infant mortality was found to range most commonly from 10-35%, with a 10-15% loss between burial and recovery. These figures were found to be useful in assessing early life mortality in more ancient populations. The most unexpected result was the finding that loss of data, and the resulting inability to study osteological questions with excavated historic cemeteries in general, correlated with substandard archaeological methods in some historic cemetery excavations rather than natural forces. A revival of basic, traditional archaeological methodology is necessary to maintain professional ethics; the modernization of cultural resource law in America is needed to facilitate this.

The increased awareness of the cemetery and its importance to the city's history created numerous requests for the purchase of burial plots. As a result, a 1965 ordinance that had ended the sale of burial plots in the cemetery was overturned allowing for the interment or dispersal of ashes on the cemetery's grounds. Despite it's rediscovery, the Old City Cemetery remains a tranquil place. Today, visitors come for various reasons. For many, the cemetery's Confederate section, surrounded by 10 foot boxwoods and filled with majestic sugar maples looming over rows of small stone markers, is the main attraction. But for others, the cemetery is a place of solitude. Panoramic views of the distant mountains and the timeless essence of this "garden cemetery" provide an atmosphere for contemplation. / Master of Architecture

published_or_final_version / Architecture / Master / Master of Landscape Architecture