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During the first half of the Nineteenth Century the dynamic of public commemoration was largely played out in the Parisian cemetery rather than in the capital. Particularly at Père Lachaise, most of the social and political changes of the capital below were mirrored and to a certain degree, the political identities of the living were actively being formulated through the erection of monuments. The purpose of this work is to illustrate, through a number of examples, that dynamic between city and cemetery. Late eighteenth-century legislation and debates evolved to allow a variety of socio-political groups the opportunity of carving out their own spheres of identity and status in the cemetery. Like ideas about death and religious beliefs, previously used as the basis for a collective analysis of funeral monuments, this establishment of socioeconomic and political identities may be perceived as a unifying function for a seemingly disparate group of monuments. During the Restoration, Parisian monuments dedicated to Louis XVI, urban and religious in nature, functioned in direct contrast to the essentially secular, extra-mural and relatively democratic space of Père Lachaise promoting the cemetery as a space for political oppositional groups to identify themselves, illustrated by the monument to the liberal opposition leader General Foy and the tombs of a growing military enclave. Nonetheless the cemetery was also used for the presentation of official identities, illustrated by the monument to Prime Minister Périer, whose iconography can be linked to July Monarchy ideology through comparisons with official Parisian public sculpture. Even more encompassing aspects of identity and appurtenance were reflected in the rising bourgeoisie's establishment of imposing family mausoleums.

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Thesis (M.A.)--West Virginia University, 1999. / Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains vi, 31 p. : maps. Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 18-19).

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Delaware, 2006. / Principal faculty advisor: Raymond A. Callahan, Master of Arts in Liberal Studies (MALS) program. Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (M.A.)--Texas State University--San Marcos, 2009. / Vita. Appendix: leaves [32]-47. Reproduction permission applies to print copy: Blanket permission granted per author to reproduce. Includes bibliographical references (leaves [48]-51). Also available on microfilm.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / DiscussÃo sobre o fim dos sepultamentos nas igrejas e a construÃÃo de novos cemitÃrios em SÃo LuÃs. No sÃculo XIX, com a afirmaÃÃo da medicina, os enterramentos realizados dentro dos templos religiosos passaram a ser alvo de merosas interdiÃÃes. O desenvolvimento do âhigienismoâ foi gradativamente construindo a idÃia de que os sepultamentos nos templos religiosos eram perniciosos à saÃde, pois exalavam vapores miasmÃticos causadores de malefÃcios fÃsicos e atà mesmo morais aos vivos. Com o acirramento das epidemias, no sÃculo XIX, em SÃo LuÃs, o discurso mÃdico, que primava pela construÃÃo de novos cemitÃrios longe das cidades, das fontes de Ãgua e onde os ventos soprassem contrariamente ao ambiente urbano, adquiriu maior visibilidade. Em 1828, a âLei Imperial de EstruturaÃÃo dos MunicÃpiosâ se tornou uma dentre as vÃrias tentativas de reorganizaÃÃo do espaÃo urbano de SÃo LuÃs e de construÃÃo de novos locais de sepultamento, afastados das igrejas, jà que os cemitÃrios existentes atà meados do sÃculo XIX eram locais de enterramento basicamente de pobres e desvalidos. Em 1855, apÃs vÃrios surtos epidÃmicos anteriores, a cidade à acometida por um grande surto de varÃola, que levou a norma à prÃtica, com a construÃÃo do cemitÃrio do GaviÃo. Este passou a ser, a partir de entÃo, local de sepultamento nÃo sà de indigentes e escravos, mas tambÃm de parte considerÃvel das classes mais abastadas de SÃo LuÃs. / Discussion about the extinction of church burials and the construction of new cemeteries in SÃo LuÃs. In the nineteenth century, with the affirmation of medicine, the burials conducted within religious temples became the target of numerous interdictions. The development of âhygienismâ gradually constructed the idea that burials within religious temples were harmful to health, since they exhaled miasmatic vapors which caused physical and even moral damages to the living. With the increase of epidemics in the nineteenth century in SÃo LuÃs, the medical discourse, which claimed for the construction of new cemeteries far from the towns, water fountains, and where the wind blew reversely in relation with the urban environment, acquired further visibility. In 1828, the âImperial Law of Municipalities Restructuringâ became one among various essays of reorganization of SÃo LuÃs urban space and of construction of new burial places, far away from churches, since the existing cemeteries, up to the middle of the nineteenth century, were basically for poor and helpless. In 1855, after various previous epidemical irruptions, the city was attacked by a big irruption of smallpox, which led the norm into practice, with the building of the GaviÃo Cemetery. Since then, that cemetery became a burial place not only for indigents and slaves, but also for a considerable part of the wealthier classes of SÃo LuÃs.

Este trabalho avaliou a ocorrência e o transporte de microrganismos no aqüífero freático do cemitério de Vila Nova Cachoeirinha, localizado em terrenos pré-cambrianos, zona norte do município de São Paulo. A metodologia aplicada foi dividida em etapas de laboratório e de campo. No laboratório, foram montadas colunas de solo do cemitério. Traçadores químico e biológico foram injetados nas colunas e o seu fluxo monitorado no efluente. Um modelo numérico foi usado para simular o transporte dos traçadores nas colunas. Em campo, foram realizadas investigações a fim de caracterizar o aqüífero freático. A monitoração da qualidade das águas foi realizada para estudar a ocorrência e o transporte de elementos químicos, bactérias e vírus nas águas subterrâneas. No cemitério, o embasamento está a cerca de 9,0 m de profundidade na cota mais baixa e 20,5 m no topo. O nível freático encontra-se entre 4 e mais de 16 m. O solo do cemitério é formado pelo material de alteração das rochas graníticas, de caráter predominantemente argiloso (~43% de argila), pH =5,0, matéria orgânica entre 0,7 e 4,2% e capacidade de troca de cátions entre 10,2 e 109,0 mmolc/kg. A condutividade hidráulica do aqüífero varia de 2,90 x 10-8 a 8,41 x 10-5 m/s. O gradiente hidráulico na porção oeste do cemitério é de aproximadamente 0,07 m/m; considerando o meio homogêneo e isotrópico e uma porosidade efetiva de 2%, a velocidade linear média foi estimada em 8 cm/dia. As amostras de água do aqüífero freático do cemitério de Vila Nova Cachoeirinha apresentaram, principalmente, bactérias heterotróficas (53 x 103 UFC/mL), bactérias proteolíticas (31 NMP/100 mL) e clostrídios sulfito-redutores (45 NMP/100 mL). Também foram encontrados enterovírus e adenovírus nas amostras. As principais fontes de contaminação das águas subterrâneas no cemitério são as sepulturas com menos de um ano, localizadas nas cotas mais baixas, próximas ao nível freático. Nestes locais, é maior a ocorrência de bactérias em geral. Há um grande consumo do oxigênio existente nas águas. As sepulturas ainda provocam um acréscimo na quantidade de sais minerais, aumentando a condutividade elétrica destas águas. Parece haver um aumento na concentração dos íons maiores bicarbonato, cloreto, sódio e cálcio, e dos metais ferro, alumínio, chumbo e zinco nas águas próximas de sepulturas. As bactérias são transportadas poucos metros, diminuindo em concentração com o aumento da distância à fonte de contaminação. Os vírus parecem ter uma mobilidade maior que as bactérias, podendo atingir algumas dezenas de metros no aqüífero freático do cemitério de Vila Nova Cachoeirinha. Os vírus foram transportados, no mínimo, 3,2 m na zona não saturada até alcançar o aqüífero. / This work assessed occurrence and transport of microorganisms in the unconfined aquifer of Vila Nova Cachoeirinha cemetery, located on pre-cambrian terrains at the northern zone of the city of São Paulo The applied methodology was divided in laboratory and field stages. In the lab, cemetery soil columns were designed; chemical and biological tracers were injected in the columns and the effluent was monitored. A numerical model was used to simulate the tracers’ transport through the columns. In the field, several investigations were done to characterize the unconfined aquifer; water quality was monitored to study occurrence and transport of chemicals, bacteria and viruses in groundwater. In Vila Nova Cachoeirinha cemetery, the depth to the bedrock is about 9.0 m at small elevation areas and 20.5 m at the top of the hill. The depth to the water table varies from 4 to over 16 m. The soil is formed by the weathered material of the granite rocks, clay content of 43%, pH = 5,0, cation exchange capacity between 10.2 and 109.0 mmolc/kg. The hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer varies from 2.90 x 10-8 to 8.41 x 10-5 m/s. The hydraulic gradient at the western part of the study area is about 0.07 m/m; considering a homogeneous and isotropic medium and an effective porosity of 2%, the average linear velocity was estimated in 8 cm/day. The water samples of the unconfined aquifer of Vila Nova Cachoeirinha cemetery presented, mainly, heterotrophic bacteria (53 x 103 UFC/mL), proteolitic bacteria (31 NMP/100 mL) and clostridium perfringes (45 NMP/100 mL). We have also found enterovirus and adenovirus in groundwater. The main sources of contamination are the within-a-year-graves located at the low elevation areas, close to the water table. At these sites, the occurrence of bacteria is greater and there is a greater consumption of oxygen in the water due to oxidation of organic matter. Moreover, the graves cause an increase in salts and electrical conductivity of the groundwater. There seems to be an increase in major ions: hydrogen carbonate, chloride, sodium, calcium; and metals: iron, aluminium, lead and zinc, next to the graves. The bacteria traveled a distance of a few meters, decreasing in concentration with increasing distance to the graves. The viruses seem to be more mobile than bacteria, they traveled distances of tens of meters at the Vila Nova Cachoeirinha cemetery. The viruses were transported at least 3.2 m through the unsaturated zone before reaching the unconfined aquifer.

M.Sc. / In a country such as South Africa, there is a rich diversity of cultural, social, traditional and religious practices. The issue of death takes on a similar diversity, as such responding to death through a burial practice differs to varying degrees with regard to burial containment, burial material and burial procedure. The last few decades have seen an increasing recognition of the impact of human activity on the environment and the critical need to transform our approach on how we plan, lead, manage and monitor our activities. The subject of death has always been sensitive, resulting in the impact of burial remains outside the mainstream environmental critique. A sustainable development approach need to be applied to the issue of burial, and best environmental options should be adopted with sensitivity to social, religious and cultural practices. As the need for land urban development increases, the available space for cemeteries is decreasing. Of the twenty-eight cemeteries in the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality, thirteen are filled up. Therefore, more space is required to bury the dead. It is also recognized that significant increases in the number of deaths due to the HIV/AIDS pandemic is causing problems for already stretched cemetery facilities throughout many parts of South Africa. Research by Fisher (2002) has shown that cemeteries have a fairly severe pollution potential, especially if situated incorrectly. Leachate produced in a cemetery is of a pathogenic nature and can pollute surface and groundwater if located too closely. In black rural areas, most cemeteries were sited by the chiefs and kings of the area, since no legislation existed to govern the cemetery sites. As a result most cemeteries were poorly sited and now possess potential health hazards for our groundwater. Groundwater is a hidden treasure for sustainable development and it plays a vital role in the community, especially in the rural areas. Groundwater is a vital resource in South Africa and sufficient measures should be taken to prevent such additional pollution. This study was undertaken to establish whether poorly sited cemeteries have an impact on groundwater quality, and how can this impact be minimized or eliminated. Therefore, the groundwater quality of Ditengteng village was analyzed chemically and microbiologically. Chemical sampling indicated that the turbidity and the colour of the water do not comply with the South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) for drinking water and the concentration of iron and manganese, which are colouring the water and may cause health hazards if consumed over a long period. Microbiological sampling results indicated that even a once-off consumption of water could cause serious health hazards. The samples collected recorded poor water quality. Despite this fact the community at Ditengteng still use this water for bathing, drinking and cooking. Since piped domestic water supplies are not available, the community depend on that water for survival. This study also indicates that an incorrectly sited cemetery can lead to the contamination of groundwater due to leachate.

Due to death being an extremely sensitive issue, the topic of cemeteries and associated environmental impacts is often left outside the mainstream environmental critique. However, this is a topic becoming more prevalent as the population numbers and the death rate increases, while the amount of available land decreases. Recent research has indicated that poorly sited cemeteries may pose a significant threat to groundwater resources with the consequential potential for severe health hazards. This has resulted in the need for a method of determining the acceptability of a given area for the establishment of a cemetery in a South African context. Cemeteries should be sited in such a way as to mitigate potential public health and safety concerns, minimise associated environmental impacts and provide a method of body disposal that is economically viable. This study therefore provides an integrated methodology to identify and assess a given area and rank a number of potential sites, ultimately determining a single cemetery site which proves to be acceptable for the establishment of a cemetery. Cemetery site selection should be based on the factors affecting the pollution potential of a proposed cemetery. These factors were identified and quantified based on research into the mechanisms of cemetery site pollution resulting in a number of fatal flaws and criteria deemed decisive when selecting a potential cemetery site. The assessment of a site with regards to these criteria and fatal flaws is undertaken through the use of GIS analysis software utilising data layers containing information on the site selection criteria, by investigating existing studies, literature or reports relating to the relevant area, or through field investigations. Although these criteria are vital when determining the specific characteristics of a site in terms of its pollution potential, a method of assessing a number of potential sites with regards to these criteria is vital. To this end, a multi-criteria ranking matrix has been developed, allowing for an objective method of assessing individual sites and thus indicating which sites are more suited for the establishment of a cemetery. The ranking matrix identifies a range of values for each criterion, therefore identifying a minimum and maximum allowable value. A site is then assessed with regards to these criteria in relation to the values identified in the ranking matrix. Each criteria is assigned a score according to the site conditions. Once the criteria for each site has been assessed and scored, the results can be tallied allowing the sites to be ranked according to which site proved to be the most acceptable for a cemetery based on the findings of the application of the site selection criteria. The methodology developed in this study is unique to previous studies in that it provides an integrated and staged approach to identifying, assessing and applying the criteria affecting the pollution potential of a cemetery. The methodology also provides a means of ranking a number of potential sites so to determine the most suitable. Furthermore, the criteria deemed as decisive in previous investigations were in most cases not quantified by the relevant authors, therefore leaving many of the criteria values up for interpretation. For this methodology to be affective, all criteria must be quantified therefore identifying maximum and minimum allowable limits for each. This study applies minimum and maximum allowable limits to these criteria, therefore aiding in the ranking process. The integrated methodology developed was then applied to a case study where by the effectiveness in identifying a number of potential cemetery sites could be tested. Subsequent to the application of this methodology to a case study, it was concluded that an additional two criteria, not identified in previous investigations, needed to be assessed to more adequately determine the suitability or otherwise of a site for a cemetery. Ultimately, twelve major criteria have been proposed for use as the basis of the methodology. The methodology and pertinent criteria proposed in this study should be compiled as a standard for planning authorities and consultants to use as a method of determining a number of potential environmentally sound cemetery sites.