Diversity within a habitat is determined largely by ecology and species interactions. Studies to date, however, rarely examined the role of intraspecific aggression in promoting coexistence and diversity. This is especially true in cities, where community ecology is poorly understood. This knowledge is important for basic understanding of how ecological principals come into play in our newly created habitats, as well as for reconciling human-dominated areas for wildlife.I studied the effect of human-made habitats on hummingbird abundance and diversity in Tucson, Arizona. To do that, I examined community organization and competitive interactions among four hummingbird species. I answer the questions: What is the community organization of hummingbirds in Tucson? How do characteristics of human habitats (e.g., landscaping and artificial resources) affect diversity? What mechanism underlies this pattern? And how can we apply this knowledge to conservation?To perform this study, I established a citizen science project - the Tucson Hummingbird Project (http://hummingbirds.arizona.edu). Trained participants reported abundance and behavior of hummingbirds in their backyards. Landscaping and resources (feeders and nectar plants) varied between yards.Results show that the distribution of hummingbirds in Tucson varies by species. Diversity, rather than merely abundance, increased with higher habitat heterogeneity and with more resources. Competitive interactions differ between species. Notably, intraspecific competition takes precedence over interspecific competition in the dominant and most common species, Anna's hummingbird.Based on the data, I suggest that Aggressive Resource Neglect (ARN) promotes coexistence and results in higher diversity when resources are augmented. When there are more feeders, they are distributed over a larger area. This reduces the ability of a territory-owner to defend these resources. While the territory-owner chases intruders, other individuals gain access to feeding opportunities. When dominant individuals prefer chasing conspecifics (as with Anna's hummingbird), this results in higher diversity.Besides discussing theoretical aspects, I apply this knowledge to conservation. Information on the community ecology enabled me to suggest ecologically-based ways to reconcile the city for native hummingbirds. By adding resources following an ecological protocol, we can promote biodiversity and surround ourselves with native wildlife, such as hummingbirds.

The behaviour of zoo animals can come to anticipate temporally predictable feeding times. However, there is a lack of consensus over the effects of such routines on behaviour and welfare. Few studies have been published in this area, perhaps in part due to methodological challenges. The current programme of work therefore aimed to extend knowledge on the effect of predictable feeding routines, and to develop a suitable methodology to overcome challenges. Prior to predictable feeding, tigers showed patterns of increased ‘active’ behaviours such as locomotion and pacing, and decreased inactivity. Geckos also showed increased ‘active’ behaviours such as locomotion and ‘stationary but moving head’ prior to predictable, compared to unpredictable feeding times, with significant differences between conditions (RSS = 0.059 and 0.047, p < .05). However, anticipatory patterns were not demonstrated for meerkats, which highlighted that other environmental factors may affect an animal’s response to temporal predictability (such as obtaining other food during the day, or signalled predictability). Studying patterns of behavioural change over time requires long periods of observation which is often not possible for researchers. The current programme of work argues that a measure which can be reliably used by many, relatively untrained observers is necessary to study predictability. The measure of ‘busyness’, a subjective rating of animal behaviour, was tested for reliability and validity. Busyness ratings showed good inter-observer reliability (ICC > .72) and correlated with traditional measures of behaviour. Busyness ratings demonstrated clear patterns related to feeding time and gave a useful compound measure of behavioural change. The use of multiple observers was extended to a citizen science approach, where useful data on anticipation in fish were obtained from aquarium visitors using a touch screen. The current programme of work successfully investigated the effects of predictable feeding routines on patterns of animal behaviour, alongside the development of suitable methods. The qualitative techniques developed here offer potential to increase the data obtained in future research into predictability and many other topics.

Human impacts on ocean ecosystems are driving declines in marine biodiversity, including marine mammals. Comprehensive spatial data are vital for making informed management decisions that may aid species recovery and facilitate the sustainable use of ocean ecosystems. However, marine mammal studies are often data limited, thereby restricting possible research questions. Developing novel analytical approaches and incorporating unconventional datasets can expand the scope of analysis by increasing the information content of existing data sources. The goal of our research is to support conservation and management of marine mammals in British Columbia (BC), Canada, through the application of advanced spatial statistical methodology to characterize spatial distribution and density patterns and provide assessments of data uncertainty. Our first objective is to generate statistical models to map spatially continuous predictions of marine mammal distributions and densities within BC’s north coast and apply methodology from spatial statistics to identify hotspots of elevated use. We use species observations collected from systematic line transect surveys previously adjusted to generate estimates of density per nautical mile of transect. We predict the distribution and density patterns of nine marine mammal species by employing a species-habitat model to relate species densities to environmental covariates using a generalized additive model. We use spatial statistical hotspot analysis (Getis-Ord Gi*statistic) and an aspatial threshold approach to identify hotspots of high density. Our analysis reveals that hotspots selected using a top percentage threshold produced smaller and more conservative hotspots than those generated using the Gi*statistic. The Gi*statistic demonstrates a robust and objective technique for quantifying spatial hotspots and offers an alternative method to the commonly applied aspatial threshold measure. We find that maps show agreement with prior research and hotspots align with ecologically important areas previously identified by expert opinion. Our second objective is to apply map comparison techniques to compare cetacean density maps from disparate data collection methods (systematic surveys and citizen science) to evaluate the information content of each map product and quantify similarities and differences. Discrepancies are quantified by performing image differencing techniques on the rank order values of each map surface. We subsequently use the Gi*statistic to isolate regions where extreme differences occur. To assess similarities, a Gi*statistic is applied to both maps to locate spatially explicit areas of high cetacean density. Where clusters of high density values in both maps overlap we infer higher confidence that the datasets are representing a true ecological signal, while areas of difference we recommend as targeted locations for future sampling effort. We contextualize map similarities and differences using a dataset of human activity in the form of cumulative human effect scores. Overall, our analytical approach integrates novel spatial datasets from systematic surveys, citizen science, and remote sensing to provide updated information on cetacean distributions in BC. Our study generates geographic data products that fill knowledge gaps and results provide baseline information valuable for future decision-making. The methodology applied in this study can be generalized across species and locations to support spatial planning and conservation prioritization in both marine and terrestrial contexts. / Graduate / 2017-11-13

Urbanisation is a key driver in the loss, fragmentation and modification of natural habitats resulting in the global loss of biodiversity. As the human population, and consequently the rate of urbanisation, continues to increase exponentially it is important to understand how to sustain and enhance biodiversity within the built environment. Cities comprise a complex assortment of habitat types yet relatively little is known of how its composition and spatial configuration can influence species presence or foraging activities. It is therefore necessary to examine habitat use and biodiversity patterns at multiple spatial scales to fully understand how species are responding to the urban matrix. There are few other orders of animals that are as strongly associated with people as bats (Chiroptera); for some bat species human habitations provide roosts and adaptations of the environment provide food sources. However bat species richness generally declines with increasing urbanisation indicating that many species are not able to persist in highly urbanised areas. In this thesis, I show that the behaviour, habitat preferences, and distribution of bats are strongly influenced by the built environment at both a local and landscape scale. Although many animal species are known to exhibit sex differences in habitat use, adaptability to the urban landscape is commonly examined at the species level without consideration of potential intraspecific differences. I found that female Pipistrellus pygmaeus show greater selectivity in foraging locations within urban woodland in comparison to males at both a local and landscape scale. There was a lower probability of finding females within woodlands which were poorly connected, highly cluttered, with a high edge: interior ratio and fewer mature trees. The results have important implications for our understanding of how to manage areas for breeding females and highlight the need to supplement acoustic monitoring with trapping data to assess sex differences in habitat use. Determining how morphological or behavioural traits can influence species adaptability to the built environment may enable us to improve the effectiveness of conservation efforts. The morphological similarities between P. pygmaeus and P. pipistrellus suggest that both species should respond similarly to the urban matrix, however I found differential habitat use occurring within a variety of urban habitats (e.g. woodland and waterways) and at a landscape scale. In urban woodland there was a higher probability of P. pygmaeus activity relative to P. pipistrellus in woodlands with low clutter and understory cover which were surrounded by low levels of built environment. Many bat species are strongly associated with aquatic or adjacent riparian habitats yet we know little about the utilisation of urban waterways by bats. After surveying urban waterways throughout the UK, I was able to show that the built environment can negatively affect a variety of bat species from the riparian zone up to 3km from a waterway. This indicates that beneficial urban waterway rehabilitation schemes for bats require management at multiple spatial scales, from retaining a vegetated riparian zone at the local scale to highlighting the necessity for conservation funding to be spent on the implementation of landscape scale environmental improvement schemes that encompass the entire urban matrix. Undertaking surveys to confirm species presence or to estimate population sizes can be difficult, particularly for elusive species such as bats. I was able to demonstrate a variety of ways to increase surveying efficiency (e.g. the use of an acoustic lure to increase bat-capture rate) and a significant relationship between bat activity and the relative abundance of certain species of bat which can maximise the knowledge of diversity in an area whilst minimising wildlife disturbances. Urbanisation has also had strong negative effects on many insect groups, such as moths, which are important components of the diets of many bat species. I found that woodland vegetation characteristics were more important than the surrounding landscapes in determining the abundance, species richness, and species diversity of moth assemblages within urban woodland. This indicates that management at a local scale to ensure provision of good quality habitat may be more beneficial for moth populations than improving habitat connectivity across the urban matrix. The findings presented in this thesis have important implications for our understanding of the adaptability of species to the built environment and for the management and monitoring of bat populations. It also highlights that even common bat species are negatively affected by urbanisation and much greater attention should be paid to securing their future within the urban landscape.

Project PANOPTES (http://www.projectranoptes.org) is aimed at establishing a collaboration between professional astronomers, citizen scientists and schools to discover a large number of exoplanets with the transit technique. We have developed digital camera based imaging units to cover large parts of the sky and look for exoplanet transits. Each unit costs approximately $5000 USD and runs automatically every night. By using low-cost, commercial digital single-lens reflex (DSLR) cameras, we have developed a uniquely cost-efficient system for wide field astronomical imaging, offering approximately two orders of magnitude better etendue per unit of cost than professional wide-field surveys. Both science and outreach, our vision is to have thousands of these units built by schools and citizen scientists gathering data, making this project the most productive exoplanet discovery machine in the world.

The extent and quality of forested habitats have changed across Europe and as a result many forest species have suffered declines and range contractions. European legislation has been introduced to conserve those species that have been negatively impacted by widespread land-use changes. In order to assess the needs of declining species and the efficacy of these protective measures, the effects of habitat type, configuration and management on individuals and populations needs to be understood. In this thesis, I have investigated patterns and drivers of variation in the status of populations of hazel dormouse Muscardinus avellanarius in the United Kingdom. I have assessed the effects of variation in habitat on hazel dormice at multiple spatial scales, and related this to woodland management.

Environmental decision making processes are subject to diverse and at times conflicting pressures. On one hand, an enlightenment perspective places high value on scientific information about complex environmental phenomena, thus encouraging highly trained experts to perform research, interpret results, and provide advice to decision makers. On the other, international and domestic efforts to apply the concept of sustainable development tend to promote an enhanced role for non-expert knowledge and increased opportunities for public participation in decisions that affect local environments and livelihoods. Complicating this scenario further are debates within governments about how to allocate limited resources for environmental research and management. Citizen environmental monitoring initiatives provide an opportunity to examine these considerations as they play out in a variety of settings. From local, grassroots citizen groups to regional networks with government support, a wide range of monitoring programs exist that involve volunteers in gathering environmental information using scientific methods. Many groups attempt to apply their findings to planning initiatives, policy development or environmental law enforcement at local or regional levels. These efforts may blur the distinction between scientific and local knowledge, while raising questions about the relative legitimacy of experts and citizens as producers of knowledge for use in environmental decision making. Using a case study approach, this thesis explores factors affecting the application of information gathered through citizen environmental monitoring programs to decision making processes and outcomes in Comox Valley, British Columbia, and Hamilton and Muskoka, Ontario. Semi-formal interviews were conducted in all three locations with coordinators of citizen groups that perform environmental monitoring, as well as with government representatives who have some involvement with the same citizen monitoring initiatives. Key themes affecting the use of citizen monitoring information emerged from the study, including political will on the part of local decision makers, scientific rigour and data quality of citizen monitoring efforts, and perceived legitimacy of citizen groups in terms of their organizational stability and reputations. Suggestions are presented for overcoming obstacles in each of these areas. The research also identifies further issues that affect the application of citizen-collected data such as the level of matching between the information priorities of citizen groups and governments, as well as collaborative arrangements between program partners. On these issues, interviewees shared their ideal scenarios for citizen monitoring programs with respect to funding, partnership strategies, and best roles for volunteers, citizen groups, and governments who are involved in citizen environmental monitoring programs. Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that future research investigate further the issues of power sharing, agenda setting, and mutual trust between citizen groups and governments at the local level.

Environmental decision making processes are subject to diverse and at times conflicting pressures. On one hand, an enlightenment perspective places high value on scientific information about complex environmental phenomena, thus encouraging highly trained experts to perform research, interpret results, and provide advice to decision makers. On the other, international and domestic efforts to apply the concept of sustainable development tend to promote an enhanced role for non-expert knowledge and increased opportunities for public participation in decisions that affect local environments and livelihoods. Complicating this scenario further are debates within governments about how to allocate limited resources for environmental research and management. Citizen environmental monitoring initiatives provide an opportunity to examine these considerations as they play out in a variety of settings. From local, grassroots citizen groups to regional networks with government support, a wide range of monitoring programs exist that involve volunteers in gathering environmental information using scientific methods. Many groups attempt to apply their findings to planning initiatives, policy development or environmental law enforcement at local or regional levels. These efforts may blur the distinction between scientific and local knowledge, while raising questions about the relative legitimacy of experts and citizens as producers of knowledge for use in environmental decision making. Using a case study approach, this thesis explores factors affecting the application of information gathered through citizen environmental monitoring programs to decision making processes and outcomes in Comox Valley, British Columbia, and Hamilton and Muskoka, Ontario. Semi-formal interviews were conducted in all three locations with coordinators of citizen groups that perform environmental monitoring, as well as with government representatives who have some involvement with the same citizen monitoring initiatives. Key themes affecting the use of citizen monitoring information emerged from the study, including political will on the part of local decision makers, scientific rigour and data quality of citizen monitoring efforts, and perceived legitimacy of citizen groups in terms of their organizational stability and reputations. Suggestions are presented for overcoming obstacles in each of these areas. The research also identifies further issues that affect the application of citizen-collected data such as the level of matching between the information priorities of citizen groups and governments, as well as collaborative arrangements between program partners. On these issues, interviewees shared their ideal scenarios for citizen monitoring programs with respect to funding, partnership strategies, and best roles for volunteers, citizen groups, and governments who are involved in citizen environmental monitoring programs. Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that future research investigate further the issues of power sharing, agenda setting, and mutual trust between citizen groups and governments at the local level.

<p>This dissertation research explores participatory sea turtle conservation monitoring through a comparison of two case studies, one in North Carolina (NC), USA and the other in Baja California Sur (BCS), Mexico. Participatory approaches in conservation management can supplement state capacity as well as strengthen the involvement of citizens in environmental governance and knowledge production. Despite scholarship challenging the validity of the categories of developing and developed nations, this categorical assumptions derived from this binary world divide continue to inform conservation, and theoretical vocabularies for local roles in conservation management. In developed nations, participatory conservation management is framed through the broader administrative rationalism discourse, and is identified as volunteer conservation or citizen science. In developing nations, participatory conservation management is approached through the discourse of biodiversity and the threats human society poses to it, and is identified through community-based processes of conservation stewardship. The two case studies analyzed in this dissertation serve to interrogate the ways in which these distinct discourses influence outcomes, and consider what may be obscured or overlooked due to discursive constraints. </p><p> Conducting ethnographic research in each case study site, I participated in and observed sea turtle conservation activities and conducted in-depth interviews with relevant sea turtle conservation actors as well as collected documents pertaining to the conservation programs. Sea turtle conservation monitors in NC and BCS perform functionally similar conservation tasks, and I collected data using similar techniques in order to maximize comparability. I compare the case studies, not to generalize to a population, but instead to speak to theoretical propositions and inform existing theory on participatory conservation monitoring. </p><p> Although participatory monitoring in NC and BCS does not result in a democratization of science, there are beneficial outcomes to participants in both places. NC sea turtle monitors are enabled to take ownership of sea turtle stewardship, and BCS sea turtle monitors are enabled to promote conservation and cultural change using the authority of science. These outcomes challenge assumptions about state capacity and local engagements with science in participatory conservation, and the disparate approaches to local roles in conservation in each `world.' The overall findings suggest that a multitude of factors are involved in the production of conservation program frameworks and participant outcomes, and more deeply interrogating the taken for granted assumptions behind conservation designs and implementation can offer stronger understandings of what participatory conservation management can (and cannot) achieve.</p> / Dissertation

In recent years Crowdsourced, or Volunteered, Geographic Information (CGI, VGI), has emerged as a large, up-to-date and easily accessible data source. Primarily attributable to the rise of the Geoweb and widespread use of location enabled technologies, this environment of widespread innovation has repositioned the role of consumers of spatial information. Collaborative and participatory web environments have led to a democratisation of the global mapping process, and resulted in a paradigm shift to the consumer of geographic data also acting as a data producer. With such a large and diverse group of participants actively mapping the globe, the resulting flood of information has become increasingly attractive to authoritative mapping agencies, in order to augment their own spatial data supply chains. The use of CGI would allow these agencies to undertake continuous improvement of their own data and products, adding a dimension of currency that has previously been unattainable due to high associated costs. CGI, however, through its diversity of authorship, presents a quality assurance risk to these agencies should it be included in their authoritative products. Until now, this risk has been insurmountable, with CGI remaining a “Pandora’s Box” which many agencies are reluctant to open. This research presents an algorithmic model that overcomes these issues, by quantifying trust in CGI in order to assess its implied quality. Labeled “VGTrust”, this model assesses information about a data author, its spatial trust, as well as its temporal trust, in order to produce an overall metric that is easy to understand and interpret. The VGTrust model will allow mapping agencies to harness CGI to augment existing datasets, or create new ones, thereby facilitating a targeted quality assurance process and minimizing risk to authoritativeness. This research proposes VGTrust in theory, on the basis of existing examinations of trust issues with CGI. Furthermore, a facilitated case study, “Building Our Footprints” is presented, where VGTrust is deployed to facilitate the capture of a building footprint dataset, the results of which revealing the veracity of the model as a measure to assess trust for these data. Finally, a data structure is proposed in the form of a “geo-molecule”, which allows the full spectrum of trust indicators to be stored a data structure at feature level, allowing the transitivity of this information to travel with each feature following creation. By overcoming the trust issues inherent in CGI, this research will allow the integration of crowdsourced and authoritative data, thereby leveraging the power of the crowd for productive and innovative re-use.