There is strong evidence that variations in seawater chemistry occurred during the Phanerozoic Eon. Of particular importance are the changes in the Mg2+/Ca2+ ratio because they have been attributed to the oscillations between “calcite” and “aragonite seas” over time. In addition to the Mg2+/Ca2+ ratio variations, there were also major changes in pCO2 levels and alkalinity that could also affect the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) polymorph that precipitates from seawater. Experiments were conducted in seawater where the initial alkalinity and pCO2 levels were varied and then slow degassing of CO2 resulted in a gradual increase of saturation state with respect to CaCO3 and eventually nucleation. The pH was continually monitored throughout the experiments and it was used in combination with the initial alkalinity to calculate the pCO2 and saturation state of aragonite (sigmarag) at the time of nucleation. The morphology and mineralogy of the precipitates were determined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, respectively. It was observed that the initial alkalinity greatly affected the nucleation pCO2 value and the CaCO3 polymorph that was precipitated. In seawater with Mg2+/Ca2+=1.2 and ~10 mM alkalinity and a pCO2 below 2,500 μatm, calcite that was overgrown with aragonite was the dominate polymorph nucleated, while pure aragonite precipitated when the pCO2 was above 2,500 μatm. Seawater with Mg2+/Ca2+=1.2 and a wide range of initial alkalinities (5-50 mM) produced variable results. Seawater with Mg2+/Ca2+=1.7 produced only aragonite at lower alkalinities, but calcite was nucleated when the alkalinity and pCO2 values were exceptionally high, typically above 11 mM. These results point to the need to also consider the effects of the carbonic acid system in the “critical” Mg2+/Ca2+ region of about 1 to 2 for “calcite seas” and “aragonite seas” at various times throughout the Phanerozoic Eon.

abstract: Many species e.g. sea urchin form amorphous calcium carbonate (ACC) precursor phases that subsequently transform into crystalline CaCO3. It is certainly possible that the biogenic ACC might have more than 10 wt% Mg and ∼ 3 wt% of water. The structure of ACC and the mechanisms by which it transforms to crystalline phase are still poorly understood. In this dissertation our goal is to determine an atomic structure model that is consistent with diffraction and IR measurements of ACC. For this purpose a calcite supercell with 24 formula units, containing 120 atoms, was constructed. Various configurations with substitution of Ca by 6 Mg ions (6 wt.%) and insertion of 3-5 H2O molecules (2.25-3.75 wt.%) in the interstitial positions of the supercell, were relaxed using a robust density function code VASP. The most noticeable effects were the tilts of CO3 groups and the distortion of Ca sub-lattice, especially in the hydrated case. The distributions of Ca-Ca nearest neighbor distance and CO3 tilts were extracted from various configurations. The same methods were also applied to aragonite. Sampling from the calculated distortion distributions, we built models for amorphous calcite/aragonite of size ∼ 1700 nm3 based on a multi-scale modeling scheme. We used these models to generate diffraction patterns and profiles with our diffraction code. We found that the induced distortions were not enough to generate a diffraction profile typical of an amorphous material. We then studied the diffraction profiles from several nano-crystallites as recent studies suggest that ACC might be a random array of nanocryatallites. It was found that the generated diffraction profile from a nano-crystallite of size ∼ 2 nm3 is similar to that from the ACC. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Physics 2012

In dieser Studie wird ein neuer Ansatz zur Herstellung von Hybridfüllstoffen – Compositen aus Cellulose und präzipitiertem Calciumcarbonat – zur Festigkeitssteigerung in Papier sowie für Anwendungen über die Papierherstellung hinaus (wie bspw. Kunststoff sowie Baufaserplatten, Filter oder Filterhilfsmittel und Foamforming-Produkte) vorgestellt. Das Hauptaugenmerk lag dabei auf der Fällung von CaCO3 über Doppelaustauschreaktion mit Calciumhalogeniden (CaCl2) und Alkalimetallcarbonaten (vorwiegend Na2CO3) auf chemisch und mechanisch modifizierte Faserstoffe in einem Doppelschneckenextruder. Die Hypothese, die dieser Doktorarbeit zugrunde lag, war, dass es möglich ist, CaCO3 durch die reaktive Extrusion direkt auf die Fasern – durch deren veränderte Ladungseigenschaften nach Modifizierung – auszufällen und damit eine irreversible Anlagerung des mineralischen Füllstoffs an den cellulosischen Faserstoff zu generieren. Dabei erwies sich die reaktive Extrusion als vielversprechende Methode sowohl für die Erzeugung carboxymethylierter und fibrillierter Faserstoffe (CMFC) als auch für die in-situ Fällung von CaCO3 direkt auf die CMFC zur Herstellung faserarmierter Füllstoffe mit einer optimierten Füllstoffretention. Darüber hinaus wurde untersucht, inwiefern sich durch die Einstellung der Reaktions- und Prozessparameter die CaCO3-Morphologie, Kristallform und -größe steuern und damit die resultierenden Composite-Eigenschaften einstellen lassen. Zudem konnte durch Anwendungsversuche der neuartigen Hybridfüllstoffe das Potenzial eben dieser in variierenden Endanwendungen – besonders jedoch zur Festigkeitssteigerung in Papier sowie zur Verbesserung des Eigenschaftsprofils in Polypropylen – verdeutlicht werden. Die Untersuchungen zeigten, dass die funktionellen Faserstoffeigenschaften einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf die CaCO3-Fällung – sowohl auf die Kristallisations- als auch Umwandlungsprozesse – und damit auf die resultierenden Hybridfüllstoff-Eigenschaften haben. Besonders wird die Keimbildungsrate durch die hydrogelartige Oberfläche der CMFC reduziert und das Kristallwachstum gefördert, sodass vor-wiegend große CaCO3-Kristalle (≥ 3 µm) an bzw. in der hydrogelartigen Faseroberfläche entstehen. Ebenso konnte gezeigt werden, dass sich auch bei intensiver mechanischer Behandlung bis zu 89 wt.-% des ausgefällten CaCO3 nicht von der CMFC lösen und demnach irreversibel angelagert sind. Dies führt bei der Laborblattbildung zu einer Verbesserung der CaCO3-Retention von 62 wt.-% auf 80 wt.-% bei Kurzfaserzellstoff (BEKP) bzw. von 38 wt.-% auf 91 wt.-% bei Langfaserzellstoff (NBSK). Darüber hinaus konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Hybridfüllstoffe zu einer Festigkeitssteigerung (Tensile Index) um das 1,5-fache bei NBSK- (16,4 Nm/g) und um das 2,1-fache bei BEKP-Laborblättern (26,2 Nm/g) beitragen. Diese Doktorarbeit verdeutlicht, dass die reaktive Extrusion ein innovatives und zukunftsfähiges Verfahren zur Composite-Herstellung ist und die neuartigen Hybridfüllstoffe Potenzial für den vielseitigen Einsatz in variierenden Materialien versprechen.:Abstract I Zusammenfassung II Danksagung III Eidesstattliche Erklärung IV Abbildungsverzeichnis VIII Abkürzungsverzeichnis XIV Formelzeichen und Indizes XVIII Formelverzeichnis XXII Normen- und Methodenverzeichnis XXIII Tabellenverzeichnis XXVI 1 Einleitung 1 2 Allgemeiner Aufbau von Zellstofffasern 3 2.1 Holzquelle Wald 3 2.2 Anatomie des Holzes 3 2.3 Morphologische Eigenschaften und chemische Zusammensetzung der Zellwand 5 2.4 Chemischer Aufbau des Holzes 6 3 Von der Zellstofffaser zur Nanocellulose 11 3.1 Nanocellulosetypen 11 3.2 Mikrofibrillierte Cellulose – MFC 14 3.3 Einsatzmöglichkeiten für MFC 14 3.3.1 Allgemeine Einsatzmöglichkeiten von MFC 14 3.3.2 Einsatz von MFC in der Papierherstellung 15 3.4 Herstellung von MFC 16 3.4.1 Allgemeine Herstellung von MFC 16 3.4.2 Herstellung von MFC im Extruder 18 3.5 Chemische Modifizierung/Vorbehandlung von Faserstoffen 20 3.5.1 Carboxymethylcellulose – CMC 20 3.5.2 TEMPO-Oxidierte Cellulose 22 3.5.3 Carboxymethylierte, fibrillierte Cellulose – CMFC 24 4 Theorie der Fällung und Kristallisation 25 4.1 Fällung und Kristallisation im Allgemeinen 25 4.2 Keim- und Partikelbildung 29 4.2.1 Änderung der freien Enthalpie bei der Keim- und Partikelbildung 29 4.2.2 Löslichkeit und Übersättigung 30 4.2.3 Keimbildungskinetik 34 4.2.4 Keimbildungs- und Wachstumsrate 37 4.3 Kristallwachstum 39 4.3.1 Diffusionskontrolliertes und einbaulimitiertes Wachstum 39 4.3.2 Modellansätze von LaMer und Ostwald 41 4.4 Mechanismen zur Beeinflussung von Fällungsreaktionen 43 5 Calciumcarbonat – Eigenschaften, Herstellung, Einsatz 45 5.1 Stoffsystem Calciumcarbonat 45 5.1.1 Eigenschaften und Vorkommen 45 5.1.2 Modifikationen und Kristallformen 47 5.1.3 Bildung der wasserfreien Phasen – Calcit, Aragonit und Vaterit 50 5.1.4 Möglichkeiten zur Steuerung der Modifikationen und Kristallformen 55 5.2 Herstellung von Calciumcarbonat 57 5.2.1 Allgemein 57 5.2.2 Natürliches Calciumcarbonat – GCC 58 5.2.3 Synthetisches Calciumcarbonat – PCC 59 5.2.3.1 Fällung aus Kalkmilch 59 5.2.3.2 Doppelaustauschreaktion 60 5.2.3.3 Weitere technische Fällungs-Methoden 61 5.3 Einsatzmöglichkeiten von Calciumcarbonat 62 5.3.1 Allgemeine Einsatzmöglichkeiten von Calciumcarbonat 62 5.3.2 PCC als funktioneller Füllstoff in der Papierherstellung 63 6 Calciumcarbonat-Fällung an Faseroberflächen 66 6.1 Motivation 66 6.2 Stand der Technik 67 6.2.1 Calciumcarbonat-Fällung an Faseroberflächen zur Hybridfüllstoff-Herstellung 67 6.2.2 Weitere Methoden zur Hybridfüllstoff-Herstellung bzw. zur Verbesserung der Faser-Füllstoff-Interaktion 72 6.3 Prozesse bei der Calciumcarbonat-Fällung an Faseroberflächen und in Hydrogelen 76 7 Problemstellung 81 7.1 Idee und Ziel der Arbeit 81 7.2 Hypothesen der Arbeit 84 8 Material und Methoden 85 8.1 Material 85 8.1.1 Verwendete Zellstoffe und deren Modifizierung 85 8.1.2 Fällungsreagenzien/-chemikalien 86 8.1.3 Weitere Chemikalien und Materialien 87 8.2 Laborfällung 87 8.2.1 Versuchsaufbau 87 8.2.2 Versuchsdurchführung 88 8.3 Extruderfällung 93 8.3.1 Versuchsaufbau 93 8.3.2 Versuchsdurchführung 95 8.4 Messmethoden zur Materialcharakterisierung 98 8.4.1 Überblick über alle angewandten Messmethoden zur Calciumcarbonat-, Faserstoff- sowie Composite-Charakterisierung 98 8.4.2 Themenspezifische und adaptierte Messmethoden sowie Probenpräparation 100 8.5 Anwendung der Composite in unterschiedlichen Produkten 107 8.5.1 Composite-Einsatz in der Laborblattbildung 107 8.5.2 Composite-Einsatz in weiteren Materialien 108 9 Ergebnisse und Diskussion der Fällungsexperimente 111 9.1 Untersuchungen zur Steuerung der Doppelaustauschreaktion zur reinen Calciumcarbonat-Fällung im Labor 111 9.2 Untersuchungen zur Composite-Bildung über Doppelaustauschreaktion im Labor 120 9.3 Untersuchungen zur Composite-Bildung über Doppelaustauschreaktion und Kalkmilchfällung im Extruder 132 9.4 Zusammenfassung der Ergebnisse 149 10 Anwendungsversuche 152 10.1 Definition möglicher Einsatzgebiete für mineralisierte Cellulosestrukturen 152 10.2 Einfluss der Composite in der Laborblattbildung 154 10.3 Einfluss der Composite in anderen Materialien 159 10.4 Zusammenfassung der Ergebnisse 164 11 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 166 Literaturverzeichnis 169 Anlagenverzeichnis 194 / This study presents a new approach for the production of hybrid fillers – composites of cellulose and precipitated calcium carbonate – for strength enhancement in paper as well as for applications beyond paper production (such as plastics as well as building fibre boards, filters or filter aids and foamforming products). The main focus was on the precipitation of CaCO3 via double exchange reaction with calcium halides (CaCl2) and alkali metal carbonates (mainly Na2CO3) onto chemically and mechanically modified fibrous materials in a twin screw extruder. The hypothesis underlying this PhD thesis was that it is possible to precipitate CaCO3 directly onto the fibres – through their altered charge properties after modification – by reactive extrusion, thus generating an irreversible attachment of the mineral filler to the cellulosic pulp. Reactive extrusion proved to be a promising method both, for the generation of carboxymethylated and fibrillated cellulose (CMFC) and for the in-situ precipitation of CaCO3 directly onto the CMFC for the production of fibre-reinforced fillers with optimised filler retention. Furthermore, it was investigated to what extent the CaCO3 morphology, crystal shape and size can be controlled by adjusting the reaction and process parameters and thus the resulting composite properties. In addition, the potential of the novel hybrid fillers in varying end-use applications – especially for increasing the strength of paper and improving the property profile of polypropylene – was demonstrated in application trials. The investigations showed that the functional fibre properties have a decisive influence on CaCO3 precipitation – both on the crystallisation and conversion processes – and thus on the resulting hybrid filler properties. In particular, the nucleation rate is reduced by the hydrogel-like surface of the CMFC and crystal growth is promoted, so that predominantly large CaCO3 crystals (≥ 3 µm) are formed on or in the hydrogel-like fibre surface. It was also shown that even with intensive mechanical treatment, up to 89 wt. % of the precipitated CaCO3 does not detach from the CMFC and is therefore irreversibly attached. This leads to an improvement in CaCO3 retention in laboratory sheet formation from 62 wt. % to 80 wt. % for hardwood pulp (BEKP) and from 38 wt. % to 91 wt. % for softwood pulp (NBSK). Furthermore, it could be shown that the hybrid fillers contribute to an increase in strength (tensile index) of 1.5 times for NBSK (16.4 Nm/g) and 2.1 times for BEKP laboratory sheets (26.2 Nm/g). This thesis work illustrates that reactive extrusion is an innovative and sustainable process for composite production and that the novel hybrid fillers promise potential for versatile use in varying materials.:Abstract I Zusammenfassung II Danksagung III Eidesstattliche Erklärung IV Abbildungsverzeichnis VIII Abkürzungsverzeichnis XIV Formelzeichen und Indizes XVIII Formelverzeichnis XXII Normen- und Methodenverzeichnis XXIII Tabellenverzeichnis XXVI 1 Einleitung 1 2 Allgemeiner Aufbau von Zellstofffasern 3 2.1 Holzquelle Wald 3 2.2 Anatomie des Holzes 3 2.3 Morphologische Eigenschaften und chemische Zusammensetzung der Zellwand 5 2.4 Chemischer Aufbau des Holzes 6 3 Von der Zellstofffaser zur Nanocellulose 11 3.1 Nanocellulosetypen 11 3.2 Mikrofibrillierte Cellulose – MFC 14 3.3 Einsatzmöglichkeiten für MFC 14 3.3.1 Allgemeine Einsatzmöglichkeiten von MFC 14 3.3.2 Einsatz von MFC in der Papierherstellung 15 3.4 Herstellung von MFC 16 3.4.1 Allgemeine Herstellung von MFC 16 3.4.2 Herstellung von MFC im Extruder 18 3.5 Chemische Modifizierung/Vorbehandlung von Faserstoffen 20 3.5.1 Carboxymethylcellulose – CMC 20 3.5.2 TEMPO-Oxidierte Cellulose 22 3.5.3 Carboxymethylierte, fibrillierte Cellulose – CMFC 24 4 Theorie der Fällung und Kristallisation 25 4.1 Fällung und Kristallisation im Allgemeinen 25 4.2 Keim- und Partikelbildung 29 4.2.1 Änderung der freien Enthalpie bei der Keim- und Partikelbildung 29 4.2.2 Löslichkeit und Übersättigung 30 4.2.3 Keimbildungskinetik 34 4.2.4 Keimbildungs- und Wachstumsrate 37 4.3 Kristallwachstum 39 4.3.1 Diffusionskontrolliertes und einbaulimitiertes Wachstum 39 4.3.2 Modellansätze von LaMer und Ostwald 41 4.4 Mechanismen zur Beeinflussung von Fällungsreaktionen 43 5 Calciumcarbonat – Eigenschaften, Herstellung, Einsatz 45 5.1 Stoffsystem Calciumcarbonat 45 5.1.1 Eigenschaften und Vorkommen 45 5.1.2 Modifikationen und Kristallformen 47 5.1.3 Bildung der wasserfreien Phasen – Calcit, Aragonit und Vaterit 50 5.1.4 Möglichkeiten zur Steuerung der Modifikationen und Kristallformen 55 5.2 Herstellung von Calciumcarbonat 57 5.2.1 Allgemein 57 5.2.2 Natürliches Calciumcarbonat – GCC 58 5.2.3 Synthetisches Calciumcarbonat – PCC 59 5.2.3.1 Fällung aus Kalkmilch 59 5.2.3.2 Doppelaustauschreaktion 60 5.2.3.3 Weitere technische Fällungs-Methoden 61 5.3 Einsatzmöglichkeiten von Calciumcarbonat 62 5.3.1 Allgemeine Einsatzmöglichkeiten von Calciumcarbonat 62 5.3.2 PCC als funktioneller Füllstoff in der Papierherstellung 63 6 Calciumcarbonat-Fällung an Faseroberflächen 66 6.1 Motivation 66 6.2 Stand der Technik 67 6.2.1 Calciumcarbonat-Fällung an Faseroberflächen zur Hybridfüllstoff-Herstellung 67 6.2.2 Weitere Methoden zur Hybridfüllstoff-Herstellung bzw. zur Verbesserung der Faser-Füllstoff-Interaktion 72 6.3 Prozesse bei der Calciumcarbonat-Fällung an Faseroberflächen und in Hydrogelen 76 7 Problemstellung 81 7.1 Idee und Ziel der Arbeit 81 7.2 Hypothesen der Arbeit 84 8 Material und Methoden 85 8.1 Material 85 8.1.1 Verwendete Zellstoffe und deren Modifizierung 85 8.1.2 Fällungsreagenzien/-chemikalien 86 8.1.3 Weitere Chemikalien und Materialien 87 8.2 Laborfällung 87 8.2.1 Versuchsaufbau 87 8.2.2 Versuchsdurchführung 88 8.3 Extruderfällung 93 8.3.1 Versuchsaufbau 93 8.3.2 Versuchsdurchführung 95 8.4 Messmethoden zur Materialcharakterisierung 98 8.4.1 Überblick über alle angewandten Messmethoden zur Calciumcarbonat-, Faserstoff- sowie Composite-Charakterisierung 98 8.4.2 Themenspezifische und adaptierte Messmethoden sowie Probenpräparation 100 8.5 Anwendung der Composite in unterschiedlichen Produkten 107 8.5.1 Composite-Einsatz in der Laborblattbildung 107 8.5.2 Composite-Einsatz in weiteren Materialien 108 9 Ergebnisse und Diskussion der Fällungsexperimente 111 9.1 Untersuchungen zur Steuerung der Doppelaustauschreaktion zur reinen Calciumcarbonat-Fällung im Labor 111 9.2 Untersuchungen zur Composite-Bildung über Doppelaustauschreaktion im Labor 120 9.3 Untersuchungen zur Composite-Bildung über Doppelaustauschreaktion und Kalkmilchfällung im Extruder 132 9.4 Zusammenfassung der Ergebnisse 149 10 Anwendungsversuche 152 10.1 Definition möglicher Einsatzgebiete für mineralisierte Cellulosestrukturen 152 10.2 Einfluss der Composite in der Laborblattbildung 154 10.3 Einfluss der Composite in anderen Materialien 159 10.4 Zusammenfassung der Ergebnisse 164 11 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 166 Literaturverzeichnis 169 Anlagenverzeichnis 194

This thesis describes a sequence of experiments which have been performed with the intention to produce synthetic nacre. Synthetic nacre is a biomimetic material based on nacre, a material which can be found in mollusc shells. Nacre is a nanocomposite which has improved mechanical properties compared to the principal component aragonite (95% wt%). The improved properties of nacre are derived from the polymeric components in the composite which allows from redistribution of forces under load. Carbonates sequester CO2 in the geological CO2-cycle. If precursor are sourced correctly, the CaCO3 in synthetic nacre can temporarily sequester CO2. Crystals with the intended pseudohexagonal morphology have been synthesised. However, subsequent quantitative analysis could not support these findings in a follow-up experiment. This discrepancy might have been caused by differences in the method. Moist nanopaper was found to be mineralisable while maintaining a layered structure.

Deposition of dispersed phase from flowing dispersions onto a substrate surface is of utmost relevance for various industrial processes like fouling of sparingly soluble salts, such as CaCO3 and CaSO4 in heat exchangers and desalination evaporators which tend to form deposits on flow surfaces of tubes or pipelines conveying hard water and in water filtration and purification processes since concentration of CaCO3 in many natural water resources is equal to or greater than the saturation level. The study of deposition is also of intrinsic interest for biophysics and colloid science where vascular calcification i.e. precipitation and deposition of calcium phosphates (hydroxyapatites) in the muscular layer of the blood reduces arterial compliance and promotes congestive heart failure. Experiments were conducted on straight, circular cross section silica tubing of inner di-ameter (ranging from 0.88 mm to3.40 mm) to study the effect of electrostatic interaction and hydrodynamics on the deposition behavior of CaCO3 on silica surface when streams of aqueous solutions of Ca(NO3)2 and Na2CO3 with a concentration of 40.0 g l−1 and 25.9gl−1 respectively flowing at a volumetric flow rate of 1 l h−1 each is mixed to form CaCO3 dispersion which was then transported through silica tubing at a steady volumetric flow rate of 2lh−1. The in situ phenomenology of CaCO3 particles transport, deposition, and evolution of spatial and temporal patterns of the CaCO3 deposition on the silica surface along with the dendritic growth of CaCO3 during the flow was visually documented with the aid of a 100X optical microscope. The study discussed the deposition behavior of dispersed phase of CaCO3 from its aqueous dispersion on the silica tubing during flow and attributed charge inversion from negative to positive of silica surface, due to the adsorption of Na+ formed during precipitation reaction of CaCO3, as a plausible reason for the reversal of electrostatic interaction from attraction between initially negatively charged silica surface and positively charged CaCO3 particles which promoted deposition and subsequent evolution of patterns of CaCO3 deposition on the silica surface during the early stage of experiments to repulsion between finally net positively charged silica surface and positively charged CaCO3 particles which resulted in retarded deposition and subsequent emergence of sparsely adhered CaCO3 agglomerates as localized, limited patches of CaCO3 deposits on the silica surface during the later stage of the experiments

Orientador: Renivaldo José dos Santos / Resumo: Durante o processo de fabricação dos artefatos de borracha natural (BN), é possível adicionar cargas, podendo ser combinadas em função das propriedades finais pretendidas. Nesse sentido o carbonato de cálcio vem sendo utilizado como carga de enchimento nas formulações com borracha natural, apenas para aumentar o volume da amostra para a mesma quantidade de borracha implementada, buscando apenas a redução do custo final. Devido a demanda industrial, surge a necessidade de investigar a possibilidade de fazer com que uma carga, ora antes utilizada como enchimento, passe a atuar como carga de reforço mecânico, ou seja, a realização de tratamentos superficiais se torna uma possibilidade viável, para que a carga consiga realizar ligações cruzadas entre as cadeias de carbono da BN. Dessa forma, foi proposto neste trabalho o estudo de compósitos de borracha natural tipo crepe claro com carbonato de cálcio ultrafino tratado com 2% do Chartwell C-515.71HR^® para substituição parcial da sílica comercial tratada com silano, buscando identificar a influência deste agente de acoplamento no processo de vulcanização, a fim de melhorar a interação entre a borracha natural e carbonato de cálcio ultrafino. O preparo ocorreu em um misturador aberto de cilindros com a variação de 10 em 10 phr para as cargas, nos híbridos, iniciou-se em 40/00 até 00/40 (sílica/carbonato de cálcio ultrafino), e foi produzida uma amostra controle, com a mesma formulação, porém sem carga, denominada goma pura. Foi po... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: During the manufacturing process of natural rubber (BN) artifacts, it is possible to add loads, which can be combined depending on the desired final properties. In this sense, calcium carbonate has been used as filler in formulations with natural rubber, just to increase the sample volume for the same amount of rubber implemented, seeking only to reduce the final cost. Due to industrial demand, there is a need to investigate the possibility of causing a load, previously used as a filler, to act as a mechanical reinforcement load, that is, the performance of surface treatments becomes a viable possibility, so that the cargo is able to cross-link the BN carbon chains. Thus, the main objective of this work is the study of natural rubber composites of light crepe type with ultrafine calcium carbonate treated with 2% of Chartwell C-515.71HR^® for partial replacement of commercial silica treated with silane, seeking to identify the influence of this coupling agent in the vulcanization process, in order to improve the interaction between natural rubber and ultrafine calcium carbonate. The preparation took place in an open cylinder mixer with a variation of 10 in 10 phr for the loads, in the hybrids, it started in 40/00 until 00/40 (silica / ultrafine calcium carbonate), and a control sample was produced , with the same formulation, but without load, called pure gum. It was possible to replace up to 75% of the silica with treated calcium carbonate, but the best response was to replac... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre

In the first part of this thesis, CaCO3 (calcite) powder ball-milled to micro/nano scale were subjected to isothermal firing in the temperature range of 450-600 ¢XC in an open air furnace in order to study specific-surface area reduction as a result of early-stage sintering/coarsening/coalescence/repacking (denoted as SCCR process) of the fine particles. The surface area and pore size distributions were obtained from the BET and BJH methods, respectively. The H1 type adsorption/desorption hysteresis loop of the type IV isotherm was used as an indicator of cylindrical pore formation upon dry pressing and firing of the powder. The apparent activation energy for the onset SCCR of the dry-pressed calcite powder turned out to be 57.5¡Ó1.0 kJ/mol based on t0.5, i.e. time for 50 % specific surface area reduction. The minimum temperature for such an incipient SCCR process was estimated to be 590K (317¢J) by extrapolating the specific-surface-area reduction rate to null. The mechanism of specific surface area change includes the Brownian motion, coarsening and coalescence/repacking of calcite particles besides sintering via synchronizing diffusion of calcium ion and carbonic acid ion along grain surface and boundary. In the second part of this thesis, pulsed laser ablation on micrometer-sized calcite (type I) powder in liquid H2O (PLAL) was conducted to study the structure and optical property change of calcium carbonate under a dynamic high-temperature. high-pressure aqueous condition. X-ray diffraction (XRD) indicated the fragmented calcite I powder via such a PLAL process change predominantly into a metastable CaCO3 II phase presumably by a displacive type transformation from calcite I and/or nucleated from atom clusters. The refined XRD lattice parameters indicate a significant internal compressive stress (up to 1.5 GPa) was retained for the predominant CaCO3 II nanoparticles having well-developed (013), (010) and (013) faces as revealed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Minor calcium carbonate nanoparticles were also identified by TEM to be other high-pressure polymorphs (type III and aragonite), hydrated (monohydrocalcite, ikaite), amorphized (amorphous calcium carbonate), and even decomposed as cubic lime (CaO). Monohydrocalcite occasionally occurred as epitaxial intergrowths within the predominant CaCO3 II matrix. Vibrational spectroscopy (Raman and FTIR) indicated the structure units of the overall nanoparticles by the PLAL process were considerably modified as a combined results of size miniature, protonation and internal compressive stress. The UV-visible absorption results further indicate that the minimum band gap of the colloidal solution was narrowed down to ca. 5 eV and 3 eV for the predominant CaCO3 II and minor accessory phases, respectively, thus shedding light on their potential opto-catalytic applications.

Le travail qui est présenté dans ce manuscrit est le résultat d'une série d'expériences qui ont été effectuées à la fois à l'Université du Maine (IMMM Le Mans) et aux lignes de lumière lD10 et lD02 de l'ESRF (Grenoble) où j'ai passé la moitié de mon temps. Le projet que j'ai travaillé pendant trois ans a été principalement orienté sur l'étude des nanomatériaux qui ont été exposés au CO2 supercritique en utilisant de diffusion des rayons X. Par conséquent une partie de ce travail a été consacrée à la description des propriétés de ce fluide supercritique et comment il interagit avec des matériaux tels que les polymères par exemple. Les matériaux analysés ont été le polystyrène sous forme de film et des ilots, ensuite des matériaux meso-structures avec des tensioactifs fluorés et finalement le carbonate de calcium. Due à la taille nanométrique de tous ces matériaux, les techniques de rayons X qui ont été largement utilisés dans ce travail étaient Small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), Grazing Small angle X-ray scattering ( (GISAXS) et X-ray reflectivity (XRR). / The work that is presented in this manuscript is the result of a series of experiments that were performed both at the Université du Maine (IMMM Le Mans) and at the ID10 and ID02 beam lines of the ESRF (Grenoble) where I have equally spent half of my time. The project I have been working on for three years was mostly oriented on the study by means of X-ray scattering probes of nanomaterials that were exposed to supercritical CO2. As a result another part of this work will be also dedicated to describing the properties of this supercritical fluid and how it interacts with materials such as polymers for instance. The analyzed materials were thin film and small island of polystyrene, then materials mesostructures using fluoro-surfactants and finally calcium carbonate. Due to the nanoscale of these materials, the X-ray probes that were extensively used in this work were Small Angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), Grazing Incidence Small Angle X-ray Scattering (GISAXS) and X-ray Reflectivity (XRR).

No description available.

Este estudo tem como objetivo estudar o fósforo total e as especiações de fósforo nos sedimentos superficiais associados aos processos biogeoquímicos em dois sistemas estuarinos, na plataforma continental sudeste e na região polar antártica. Amostras de água de fundo foram coletadas em dois períodos sazonais (verão-inverno) nos estuários sob diferentes graus de impacto ambiental antrópico. A metodologia de extração das frações de (SEDEX) aplicada para obter as especiações químicas de fósforo foi testada com padrões certificados antes das análises. Os resultados foram reprodutivos e a eficiência da extração foi aceitável. As concentrações das espécies químicas de fósforo sedimentar nos dois estuários mostraram diferenças entre os setores seguindo as características granulométricas, influência da maré, condições redox das águas de fundo bem como, as ações antrópicas reveladas pelos dados quantitativos e qualitativos. Uma influência sazonal mínima foi observada. No caso da plataforma sudeste, altos valores de matéria orgânica foram observados em núcleos ao longo da plataforma, junto às estações externas das radiais de Santos e Ilha Grande mostrando uma diferenciação acompanhada pelas frações de fósforo orgânico e carbono orgânico. Nas demais radiais, altos valores de CaCO3 foram observados nas estações mais externas. Na Baía do Almirantado as frações predominantes foram P mineral, P detrítico, P-ligado à apatita autigênica, sendo que a forma orgânica foi baixa e associada a baixos valores de carbono orgânico. A quantificação e distribuição das espécies de fósforo nos sedimentos constituem importante ferramenta para compreender o ciclo biogeoquímico do fósforo e dos demais nutrientes nos ecossistemas marinhos. / This work aims to study the total and chemical species of phosphorus in the surface sediments associated to the biogeochemical processes in two estuarine systems, the southeastern continental shelf and Antarctic polar region. Bottom water samples were collected in two seasonal periods (summer-winter) in the estuaries under different degrees of environmental anthorpic impacts. The fraction extraction methodology (SEDEX) applied to obtain the chemical phosphorus species was tested in relation to the certified standards before analyses. The results were reproductive and the extraction efficiency was acceptable. The chemical species concentrations of sedimentary phosphorus in the two estuarine systems showed differences between sectors following the granulometric characteristics, tide influence, redox conditions of the bottom waters as well as anthropic actions revealed by quantitative and qualitative data. A minimum seasonal influence was observed. In the case of eastern continental shelf, high values of organic matter were found in nuclei distribution along the platform in the external stations of Santos and Ilha Grande radials showing a differentiation accompanied by organic phosphorus and C org., fractions. In the other radials high CaCO3 values were observed in the external stations. In the Admiralty Bay the predominant fractions were detrital apatite and authigenic/biogenic apatite, being that organic form was low, linked to low values of organic carbon. The quantification and distribution of P species in the sediments constitute important tools to understand the P and the other nutrient biogeochemical cycles in the sea ecosystems