The objectives of this thesis were to investigate 1) the use of behavior and activity monitoring for the identification of heifers at risk of disease, 2) the use of group level management practices to reduce the risk of disease, and 3) the identification of long-term impacts of bovine respiratory disease complex (BRD). For objective 1, lying posture, a decreased willingness to approach an observer and high lethargy scores were associated with diarrhea in calves under 2 weeks of age and a high lethargy score in 4-6 week old calves was associated with decreased average daily gain (ADG) in the first 8 weeks of life (n = 744). In weaned calves (n = 74) increased activity (increase in steps and decrease in lying), standing at the bunk not eating, and lying far from other calves in the first 3 days post-weaning were associated with decreased post-weaning weight gain. For objective 2, separating social mixing from movement to a novel environment, and administering prophylactic antibiotics to calves at high risk of disease, were investigated. Both mixing and movement to a novel environment increased activity levels in newly weaned dairy calves (n = 64). When calves were mixed prior to movement to a novel environment they had a smaller increase in activity compared to calves that were simultaneously mixed and moved. No differences in weight gain or calf starter intake were observed. Administration of a prophylactic antibiotic, tulathromycin, to 3 day old calves upon arrival at a heifer raising facility (n = 788) and 8 week old calves at first movement to group housing (n = 1,392 ) was found to reduce diarrhea and otitis media, and BRD, respectively. Objective 3 was addressed by monitoring calves that received tulathromycin at 8 weeks of age to determine the long-term impacts of BRD. Bovine Respiratory Disease complex was associated with decreased growth to 9 months of age, decreased survival to first calving, increased risk of dystocia and a greater age at first calving. / Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada & Pfizer Animal Health

The variability in calf management can change the physiological state of the calf as they are weaned or attain puberty. It is up to the producer to ensure that the calves develop properly to meet their expected needs on the farm. While there are guidelines from the NRC in place, there is a substantial range in the amount of protein and fat that a calf can be fed. This physiological state can be reflected in the proteins produced in tissues, the expression of gene regulatory pathways, or even the microbes present in the gut. The purpose of this study was to examine how an increase in dietary energy in milk replacer of pre-weaned Holstein heifers impacts the microbial profile of the rumen as well as the transcriptome in tissues related to growth and metabolism. Our hypothesis was that pre-weaned Holstein heifers on milk replacer diets with lower dietary energy will have a different rumen microbiome composition and a different transcriptome in growth related tissues. Holstein heifer calves (n = 36) were assigned randomly to 1 of 2 milk replacer diets: restricted (R; 20.9% CP, 19.8% Fat; n = 18) or enhanced (E; 28.9% CP, 26.2% Fat; n = 18). Calves were euthanized and rumen fluid was collected at pre-weaning (8 wks; n = 6) or post-weaning (10 wks; n = 6). Liver (L), adipose (A), and longissimus dorsi (LD) tissues were collected at pre-weaning (8 wks; n = 12). Average daily gain (ADG) and gain-to-feed ratio (G:F) were calculated for each calf. Analysis of ADG and G:F was performed using a PROC GLM in SAS with diet as the main effect; E calves had increased ADG and G:F compared to R calves. For rumen samples, libraries were constructed from extracted DNA and DNASeq was conducted using a paired-end analysis at 100 bp using Illumina HiSeq 2500. Operational taxonomic unit (OTU) clustering analysis was conducted using the 16s rRNA Greengenes reference. A PERMANOVA analysis was conducted in R to determine OTU populations for age and treatment. There was no difference in microbiome composition between pre-weaning and post-weaning calves (P = 0.761). Microbiome composition differed between E and R calves (P < 0.001). Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes represented the most abundant phyla for both E and R calves. Enhanced calves had 49.4% (5141 reads) Bacteriodetes and 36.4% (3789 reads) Firmicutes; whereas, R calves had 31.6% (2491 reads) Bacteriodetes and 41.1% (3236 reads) Firmicutes. For L, A, and LD samples, libraries were constructed from extracted RNA for RNA-Seq analyses. RNA-Seq analysis was performed using CLC Genomics Workbench and the Robinson and Smith Exact Test was used to identify differentially expressed genes between diets. There were 238 differentially expressed genes in A, 227 in LD, and 40 in L. Of the differentially expressed genes, 10 appeared in at least 2 tissues. PANTHER was used to identify functional categories of differentially expressed genes. The majority of genes were associated with metabolic processes (A = 112, 26.7%; L = 16, 32.0%; LD = 81, 34.0%) or cellular processes (A = 93, 22.1%; L = 13, 26.0%; LD = 73, 30.7%). In E calves, upregulated genes included those regulating NADH dehydrogenation (LD = 17, A = 5; i.e. ND1, ND4), gluconeogenesis (LD = 2, A = 6; i.e. ALDOB, PCK2), and cell proliferation (LD = 2, A = 3; i.e. GADD45A, CDKN1A). There was a difference in both the transcriptome and rumen microbiome of calves fed differing levels of dietary energy. The calves on the R diet had a rumen microbial composition more similar to a younger calf, while the composition of E calves was more similar to a mature calf. The change in regulation of genes involved in the cell cycle and ATP synthesis in response to dietary energy could explain the change in ADG between diets. Because the R calves appeared to have stunted development of their microbiomes and an expression profile similar to oxidative stress, it is possible that the R diet did not meet the nutritional requirements of that calves. / Master of Science / Changes in the way a calf is raised from birth can affect the biological processes that occur when they change from liquid to solid feed or reach reproductive maturity. While there are guidelines in place in how much a calf should be fed, there is still a large range in the amount of protein and fat in the liquid feed. The change in nutrition levels changes the biological processes occurring in the calf, which are reflect by changes in expression of genes in different parts of the calf as well the levels of microbes in the gut. The purpose of this study was to examine how the change in protein and fat in the liquid feed of female calves affects the microbes in the first section of the stomach, the rumen, as well as the genes expressed in parts of the calf associated with growth. Our hypothesis was that female calves fed liquid diets with lower protein and fat will have different rumen microbes and a different level of gene expression in growth related tissues. Female calves (n = 36) were randomly assigned 1 of 2 diets at birth: restricted (R; 20.9% Crude Protein, 19.8% Fat; n = 18) or enhanced (E; 28.9% Crude Protein, 26.2% Fat; n = 18). Calves were euthanized and rumen contents were collected at removal of the liquid feed (8 wks; n = 6) or 2 wks after calves were switched to an all dry feed diet (10 wks; n = 6). Liver (L), adipose (A), and longissimus dorsi (LD) tissues were collected at removal of the liquid feed (8 wks; n = 12). Bacterial DNA was extracted from the rumen samples and RNA was extracted from L, A, and LD samples. DNA and RNA were sequenced at the University of Missouri DNA Core Lab. Microbiome composition differed between E and R calves (P < 0.001). Enhanced calves had 49.4% Bacteriodetes and 36.4% Firmicutes; whereas, R calves had 31.6% Bacteriodetes and 41.1% Firmicutes. There were 238 differentially expressed genes in A, 227 in LD, and 40 in L. Of the differentially expressed genes, 10 appeared in at least 2 tissues. In E calves, upregulated genes included those regulating NADH dehydrogenation (LD = 17, A = 5; i.e. ND1, ND4), gluconeogenesis (LD = 2, A = 6; i.e. ALDOB, PCK2), and cell growth (LD = 2, A = 3; i.e. GADD45A, CDKN1A). There was a difference in both the gene expression and rumen microbiome of calves fed differing levels of protein and fat. The calves on the R diet had a rumen microbial composition more similar to a younger calf, while the composition of E calves was more similar to a mature calf. Because the R calves appeared to have stunted development of their microbiomes and an expression profile similar to oxidative stress, it is possible that the R diet did not meet the nutritional requirements of that calves.