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  • About
  • The Global ETD Search service is a free service for researchers to find electronic theses and dissertations. This service is provided by the Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations.
    Our metadata is collected from universities around the world. If you manage a university/consortium/country archive and want to be added, details can be found on the NDLTD website.
21

Impact of offtake mechanisms on wind turbine selection and design in North and Central Europe

Reiter, Gesa January 2023 (has links)
Wind power has become a major supplier of electricity in the European market in the last years. In 2020, 13% of electricity generated on the European continent was wind energy (onshore and offshore) and these shares are projected to increase in the next years due to reasons such as climate change and the energy security aspect. While an increased share of renewable electricity in the electricity mix has a lot of benefits, it also comes with challenges. One of these challenges are the electricity market design and the offtake mechanisms that find application. If national expansion goals for wind energy are to be achieved, wind power plants need to be profitable and hence be an attractive and competitive investment. If wind farms are running within the prevalent merit order system where the energy source with the highest marginal cost sets the electricity price, there is a risk of low or even negative income at times of high wind or solar irradiation. The unforeseeable and potentially low revenues also lead to worse conditions in the financing of wind projects, resulting in high financing costs. To counteract this challenge, governments have set up policy frameworks and subsidies and owners of wind farms have adopted different offtake mechanisms such as pay-as-produced PPAs (power purchase agreements) and baseload PPAs. Additionally, many operators hedge their assets, meaning that risks are reduced by deployment of different offtake mechanisms. All of this is where this study ties in. The objective was to evaluate how the design of markets and offtakes and their respective pricing level and predictability impact the best turbine fit in North and Central Europe. To get to an answer, two key onshore markets within the region have been chosen and characterized, namely Germany and Sweden. Two different turbine types, one with a low capacity factor but high rated power and one with a lower rated power but high capacity factor, have been examined in these markets in order to evaluate which turbine type performs better. A third turbine type which is a new concept in the technology demonstrator stage has been added to the study to assess its performance as compared to the existent turbines. The evaluation has been performed in form of a Use Case Analysis and Sensitivity Study. Finally, the results have been compared and generalized into key takeaways that can be transferred into other markets in the region of North and Central Europe. The study finds that different market characteristics and offtake mechanisms do in fact impact turbine selection and the best turbine fit. Important factors that have been found in this research are the key financial metric (NPV and IRR), market constraints such as a grid constraint, and offtake mechanisms and the predictability of revenues that comes with the offtake. The main impacts on wind turbine selection that can be tied to offtake mechanisms are the payment received per unit of electricity and the level of security that comes with the offtake mechanism. Constant incomes improve financing conditions, meaning that resources from crediting institutes are granted at better conditions if the income can be anticipated. For both markets, the optimal turbine fit varies depending on the boundary conditions. High capacity factor turbines have been found to be a better fit if the developing company considers the IRR as focal financial metric. If the NPV is the focal metric, the results are less clear: While low capacity turbines are a better fit for sites with low revenues from electricity pricing and lower wind conditions, turbines with high rated power benefit from high and secured electricity pricing and high wind speeds where rated power is reached. The German EEG as a special case promotes installation of high capacity turbines due to high and constant revenues per MWh. While the overall Value Pool (payment per MWh of electricity) is higher for Germany, business cases in Sweden benefit from higher turbine lifetimes. / Vindkraft har under de senaste åren blivit en viktig leverantör av el på den europeiska marknaden. År 2020 var 13 % av elproduktionen på den europeiska kontinenten vindkraft (på land och till havs) och dessa andelar förväntas öka under de kommande åren på grund av orsaker som klimatförändringar och energisäkerhet. Även om en ökad andel förnybar el i elmixen har många fördelar, kommer den också med utmaningar. En av dessa utmaningar är elmarknadens utformning och de uttagsmekanismer som tillämpas. Om de nationella utbyggnadsmålen för vindkraft ska kunna uppnås måste vindkraftverken vara lönsamma och därmed utgöra en attraktiv och konkurrenskraftig investering. Om vindkraftsparkerna drivs inom det rådande merit order-systemet, där den energikälla som har högst marginalkostnad sätter elpriset, finns det risk för låga eller till och med negativa intäkter vid tillfällen med mycket vind eller solinstrålning. De oförutsägbara och potentiellt låga intäkterna leder också till sämre villkor för finansiering av vindkraftsprojekt, vilket resulterar i höga finansieringskostnader. För att motverka denna utmaning har flera regeringar inrättat politiska ramverk och subventioner och ägare av vindkraftsparker har infört olika uppköpsmekanismer såsom PPA (Power Purchase Agreement) med betalning efter produktion och PPA för basbelastning. Dessutom säkrar många operatörer sina tillgångar, vilket innebär att riskerna minskas genom användning av olika upptagningsmekanismer. Målet var att utvärdera hur utformningen av marknader och upptag samt deras respektive prisnivå och förutsägbarhet påverkar den bästa turbinanpassningen i Nord- och Centraleuropa. För att komma fram till ett svar har representativa marknader inom regionen valts ut och karakteriserats, nämligen Tyskland och Sverige. Två olika turbintyper, en med låg kapacitetsfaktor men hög nominell effekt och en med lägre nominell effekt men hög kapacitetsfaktor, har undersökts på dessa marknader för att utvärdera vilken turbintyp som presterar bättre. En tredje turbintyp som är ett nytt koncept i teknikdemonstratorstadiet har lagts till i studien för att bedöma dess prestanda jämfört med de befintliga turbinerna. Utvärderingen har utförts i form av en användningsfallsanalys och en känslighetsstudie. Slutligen har resultaten jämförts och generaliserats till viktiga slutsatser som kan överföras till andra marknader i regionen Nord- och Centraleuropa. Studien visar att olika marknadsegenskaper och uppköpsmekanismer påverkar valet av turbin och vilken turbin som passar bäst. Viktiga faktorer som har hittats i denna forskning är det viktigaste finansiella måttet (NPV och IRR), marknadsbegränsningar som spetshöjd eller nätbegränsningar, och uppköpsmekanismer och förutsägbarheten av intäkter som kommer med uppköpet. De viktigaste faktorerna som påverkar valet av vindkraftverk och som kan kopplas till avsättningsmekanismer är den betalning som erhålls per enhet el och den säkerhetsnivå som följer med avsättningsmekanismen. Konstanta inkomster förbättrar finansieringsvillkoren, vilket innebär att resurser från kreditinstitut beviljas på bättre villkor om inkomsterna kan förutses. För båda marknaderna varierar den optimala turbinpassningen beroende på gränsvillkoren. Turbiner med hög kapacitet har visat sig passa bättre om utvecklingsföretaget betraktar internräntan som ekonomiska nyckeltal. Om NPV är det centrala måttet är resultaten mindre tydliga: Medan turbiner med låg kapacitet passar bättre för platser med låga intäkter från elpriser och lägre vindförhållanden, gynnas turbiner med hög nominell effekt av höga och säkra elpriser och höga vindhastigheter där nominell effekt uppnås. Det tyska EEG är ett specialfall som främjar installation av turbiner med hög kapacitet på grund av höga och konstanta intäkter per MWh. Medan den totala värdepoolen (betalning per MWh el) är högre för Tyskland, gynnas affärsfall i Sverige av högre livslängd för turbinerna.
22

Behaviour of three-dimensional concrete structures under concurrent orthogonal seismic excitations

Zaghlool, Baher SalahElDeen Othman Ahmed January 2007 (has links)
This thesis is a study into the response and seismic safety of three-dimensional multi-storey concrete structures under concurrent orthogonal seismic excitations. It employs the nonlinear time-history method as its analysis tools. Time-history analyses rely heavily on their utilised earthquake records. Accordingly, this study examines the different approaches of selecting earthquake suites and develops a methodology of selecting representative earthquake scenarios. This methodology is credibly implemented in selecting a far- and a near field suites representative of the New Zealand seismic hazard. The study investigates the response of 6-, 9- and 12-storey concrete structures of different n-X-bays × m-Y-bays. Bidirectional responses of these considered structures are examined and consequently the current combination rules are scrutinised. Consequently this study strongly recommends the use of the 40-percent combination rule in lieu of the widely used 30-percent rule; and the use of time-history analysis in lieu of quasi/equivalent static and response modal analysis methods to avoid their strong dependence on combination rules. An intensive study is conducted employing the incremental dynamic analysis (IDA) technique to investigate structural demands of interstorey drifts, lateral storey drifts and storey accelerations. The study utilises the developed far-field suite and identifies the 50th and 90th percentile demands. Hence it provides easy-to-use expressions to facilitate rapid calculation of the structural demands and the effects of biaxial interactions. An implementation into the Demand and Capacity Factor Design (DCFD) format is presented that infers confidence in the performance levels of the considered structures. The study also draws attention to the importance of considering storey accelerations as their storey values reach as high as 10 × PGA. A sensitivity study is conducted by repeating the IDA investigation while using the developed near-field suite. Subsequently a comparison between the near- and the far-field results is conducted. The results were markedly similar albeit of less magnitudes until the (seismic hazard) intensity measure IM = Sa(T₁) = 0.4g when the near-field results show sudden flat large increase in demands suggesting a brittle collapse. This is attributed to the higher content of the higher mode frequencies contained in near-field ground motions. Finally, the study examines the (vectorial) radial horizontal shear demands in columns and beam-column joints of the previous far- and near-field studies. The combined radial shear demands in corner, edge and internal columns and joints are evaluated that roughly show a square-root proportional relationship with IM that exhibit somewhat brittle failure at IM ≥ 0.35g. Shears demands in the (4-way) internal columns and the (2-way) corner joints show highest magnitude in their respective class. The results suggest transverse joint shear reinforcement of 1.5, 1.0 and 0.5 of the longitudinal reinforcement of the neighbouring beam respectively for corner, edge and internal joints. An implementation of a proposed practical (and simpler) DCFD format shows satisfactory confidence in columns performance in shear up to IM = 0.35g, conversely to joints unsatisfactory performance in shear at the onset of inelastic behaviour (IM > 0.05g).

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