Background: Resistant hypertension (RH) is defined as blood pressure (BP) that remains elevated (>140/90mmHg) despite being treated with an antihypertensive regimen of 3 or more medications from different classes, including a long-acting calcium channel blocker, an angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor or angiotension receptor blocker and a diuretic. The prevalence of RH in South Africa is currently unknown, however, clinical reports suggest that it is not rare. Patients with RH are significantly predisposed to cardiovascular (CV) diseases compared to patients with controlled BP. Consequences of RH include left ventricular hypertrophy, heart failure, ischaemic heart disease, chronic kidney disease leading to end-stage renal disease, stroke, vascular dementia, CV death and peripheral arterial disease. A proportion of patients with RH who never achieve BP control despite maximal medical treatment, represent a potentially novel and distinctive phenotype which is different from RH patients whose BP canbe controlled. Recognising and categorising such patients becomes the initial and crucial step in stratifying phenotypes and defining mechanisms of treatment resistance. Objectives: The aim of this study was to identify patients with resistant uncontrolled hypertension (RUH) and compare phenotypes in these patients to resistant controlled hypertensives (RCH). Methods: We enrolled 50 patients from the Groote Schuur Hospital Hypertension Clinic: a teriary referral hospital for RH. Patients on 4 or more antihypertensive medication including a diuretic, with BP< 140/90mmHg were considered RCH, and those with BP ≥ 140/90 considered RUH. Assessments included clinical examination, electrocardiography, echocardiography, applanation tonometry, serum biomarkers and cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR - which included biventricular volumes and function, myocardial strain, tissue characteristics and late gadolinium enhancement - LGE). Results: Thirty were diagnosed with RUH and twenty with RCH. Patients with RUH were more likely to have a longer duration since diagnosis of hypertension (10.5±10.7 vs. 3.6±3.4, p=0.02) and more likely to be on treatment that included an ACE-inhibitor (90% vs. 58%, p=0.01). As expected, patients with RUH had significantly higher systolic BP (155.6±21.6 vs. 137.8±16.5 mmHg, p< 0.001), diastolic BP (88.4±14.5 vs. 77.5±13.6 mmHg, p= 0.03), mean arterial BP (115.4±17.2 vs 101±15.3 mmHg, p= 0.004) and pulse pressure (67.3±14.2 vs. 60.1±12.4 mmHg, p=0.001). Further, RUH patients had significantly lower large artery elasticity (12.5±4 vs 14.7±3.8ml/mmHgx100, p=0.08) and lower small artery elasticity (4.1±2.1 vs. 6.9±3.6ml/mmHgx100, p< 0.001). RUH patients also had a higher systemic vascular resistance (1754±418.4 vs. 1363±371.5dyneXsecXcm-5, p=0.002). On CMR, RUH patients had lower right ventricular (RV) end-systolic and end-diastolic volumes (p=0.02), as well as higher indexed left ventricular mass (LVMI) (61.6±17.6 vs 52.9±13.9 g/m2 , p= 0.06). There were no differences in native T1, extracellular volume quantification and LGE volume fraction between RUH and RCH patients. Conclusions: Patients with RUH have a greater involvement and more severe CV phenotype, that is likely to result in increased CV morbidity and mortality, including greater target end organ damage as a result of vascular adaptations and concentric remodeling.

Baroreflex sensitivity (BRS) is often reduced in elderly populations and patients with chronic cardiovascular diseases leading to a concomitant rise in blood pressure variability (BPV) that is associated with increased cardiovascular related morbidity and mortality. Thus, there is a need to better understand the mechanisms by which BPV causes cardiovascular end-organ damage. Animal studies using sinoaortic denervation (SAD) to increase BPV have demonstrated pathologic changes in the structure of the heart and blood vessels; however, there is a paucity of data investigating changes in functional measures of the heart and smaller, resistance type arteries. Furthermore, the pathogenic mechanisms involved in BPV-induced cardiovascular end-organ damage remain unknown. Baroreceptor denervation results in multiple cardiac stressors, many of which are associated with production of reactive oxygen species. Oxidative stress is known to promote cardiovascular end-organ damage but it is unclear if it plays a role in models of increased BPV. Thus, this study was designed to investigate the functional responses of smaller resistance type arteries and the heart to chronic exposure to enhanced BPV. In addition, the role of oxidative stress on these functional responses in a normotensive rat model of increased BPV was also investigated. Rats were subjected to either SAD surgery or a sham procedure and were observed for six weeks. To determine the role of oxidative stress, SAD rats were either treated with the superoxide dismutase mimetic tempol or left untreated. During the observation period, mean blood pressure remained normotensive, whereas baroreflex sensitivity was reduced and BPV increased two to three fold. Weekly in vivo assessment of vascular function of the long posterior ciliary artery (LPCA) demonstrated a significant reduction in endothelial-dependent dilation starting three weeks after SAD surgery compared to the sham group. Endothelial-independent dilation was not affected by SAD. Structural changes were not evident in the LPCA following SAD. However, structural (wall thickness, wall area, and wall area/lumen area ratio) and functional (strain and distensibility) changes were observed in the aorta. Cardiac structural (hypertrophy) and functional (diastolic dysfunction) effects were also evident following six weeks of increased BPV. Antioxidant treatment with tempol did not have any effect on the SAD-induced increase in BPV or decrease in BRS. Nevertheless, chronic tempol treatment prevented or reduced the cardiovascular end-organ damage (endothelial-dependent vascular dysfunction, decreased aortic distensibility, cardiac and vascular hypertrophy, and cardiac dysfunction) observed in the untreated SAD group. These findings suggest that the pathology observed following SAD is at least partly mediated by oxidative stress. Antioxidant treatment in patients with increased BPV (e.g., hypertension, diabetes, heart failure) may prevent or ameliorate cardiovascular end-organ damage and reduce the overall risk for cardiovascular disease events.

Le syndrome d’apnées obstructives du sommeil est un problème de santé publique affectant plus de 5 % de la population, se caractérisant par des obstructions répétées des voies aériennes durant la nuit. L’hypoxie intermittente (HI) qui en résulte, induit des complications cardiovasculaires (hypertension, athérosclérose, insuffisance cardiaque). Le but de cette thèse est d’explorer le remodelage cardiovasculaire induit par l’HI et de comprendre le rôle de HIF-1 et de l’endothéline (ET-1) dans ces modifications. Pour cela nous avons exposé à 14 jours d’HI des souris HIF1α+/- ou traitées avec un antagoniste des récepteurs à l’ET-1. Chez les souris contrôles, nous avons observé un épaississement de la paroi aortique, une inflammation systémique et locale dans l’aorte ainsi qu’une hypertrophie du ventricule droit qui sont absents chez les souris HIF1α+/- ou traitées au bosentan. La délétion de HIF1a prévient également l’augmentation de contractilité observée dans le ventricule gauche après HI. En conclusion HIF-1 et ET-1 semblent fortement impliqués dans le remodelage vasculaire et myocardique induit par l’HI. / Obstructive sleep apnea is a public health problem affecting more than 5% of the population, characterized by repeated airway obstructions during sleep. The resulting intermittent hypoxia (IH) induces cardiovascular complications (hypertension, atherosclerosis, heart failure). The aim of this thesis is to characterize the cardiovascular remodeling induced IH and understand the role of HIF-1 and endothelin (ET-1) in these alterations. For this, we exposed to IH for 14 days HIF1α+/- mice or mice treated with an ET-1 receptor antagonist. Control mice developed thickening of the aortic wall, systemic and local inflammation in the aorta and right ventricular hypertrophy that were absent in HIF1α+/- or bosentan-treated mice. HIF1a deletion also prevents the increase in left ventricular contractility observed after HI. In conclusion, HIF-1 and ET-1 appear to be strongly involved in the vascular and myocardial remodeling induced by HI.

Objectif : L'hypertension est associée à une hyperplasie cardiovasculaire, un taux de renouvellement cellulaire accéléré et une diminution de la longueur des télomères. Nous avons postulé que le renversement de l’hyperplasie par apoptose sélective observé avec les inhibiteurs du système rénine-angiotensine (iSRA) chez le rat spontanément hypertendu (SHR) est associé à une modulation de la longueur des télomères cardiovasculaires. Méthodes : La mesure relative du poids du ventricule gauche (VG) et son contenu en ADN ont été mesurés. Dans l’aorte, l’hypertrophie a été mesurée histologiquement et l’hyperplasie par décompte des cellules de muscle lisse (CML). La longueur des télomères (TRF) a été mesurée par immunobuvardage de type Southern. Ces mesures ont été effectuées chez des rats SHR traités avec un placebo, un iSRA (énalapril ou losartan) ou l'hydralazine pendant 21 jours, ainsi que chez les rats normotendus Wistar-Kyoto (WKY). Résultats : Les iSRA ont partiellement normalisé le contenu en ADN dans le VG et complètement normalisé le décompte cellulaire des CML dans l’aorte. Comparativement aux rats WKY, les SHR placebo ont montré un plus haut pourcentage de TRF courts dans le ventricule gauche (50,2% vs 64,6%; p<0,05) ainsi qu’une longueur moyenne des TRF plus courte (62,6 Kb vs 57,1Kb; p<0,05). Ces différences ont été abolies par l'énalapril et le losartan mais pas par l'hydralazine. Dans l’aorte, les résultats préliminaires n’ont pas révélé de différence significative. Ils suggèrent que les rats SHR-placebo ont des télomères plus longs que les rats WKY et que les inhibiteurs du SRA tendent à normaliser cette différence. Conclusion : Les iSRA ont normalisé la longueur des télomères dans le VG. Nous spéculons que les iSRA agissent comme agents sénolytiques et éliminent préférentiellement les fibroblastes cardiaques avec télomères courts. Dans l’aorte, d’autres études sont requises afin de confirmer une possible régulation différentielle spécifique à ce tissu. / Objective: Hypertension is associated with cardiovascular hyperplasia, an increased cell turnover and a decrease in telomere length. We postulated that the reversal of hyperplasia by selective apoptosis observed with renin-angiotensin inhibitors (RASi) in the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) is associated with a modulation of cardiovascular telomere length. Methods: Relative weight of the left ventricle (LV) and its DNA content were measured. In the aorta, hypertrophy was measured histologically and hyperplasia was measured through smooth muscle cell (SMC) count. Telomere restriction fragment (TRF) length was measured using Southern blot. Those measures were taken on SHR treated with either a placebo, a RAS inhibitor (enalapril or losartan) or hydralazine for 21 days, as well as on Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) normotensive rats. Results: RAS inhibitors partially normalized DNA content in the LV and completely normalized the SMC count in the aorta. Comparatively to the WKY rats, SHR-placebo displayed a higher percentage of short TRF in the LV (50,2% vs 64,6%; p<0,05) as well as a shorter mean TRF length (62,6 Kb vs 57,1Kb; p<0,05). Those differences were eliminated by enalapril and losartan, but not with hydralazine. In the aorta, preliminary results did not yield to significant differences. They suggest that SHR-placebo have longer telomeres than WKY rats and that RAS inhibitors tend to normalize this difference. Conclusion: RAS inhibitors normalized telomere length in the LV. We speculate that RAS inhibitors act as senolytic agents and preferentially eliminate cardiac fibroblasts with short telomeres. In the aorta, more studies are required to confirm the possible differential regulation specific to this tissue.