The anode material in a conventional design of solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) operating above 1123 K is typically made from NiO/Zirconia. NiO/Zirconia anodes are known to perform well in hydrogen but exhibit difficulties when natural gas is used as a fuel. Natural gas is much cheaper than hydrogen and widely available but causes carbon deposition and deactivation of the NiO/Zirconia SOFC anode. One objective of this work was to prepare and characterize NiO/Zirconia anodes both as powders and as applied to extruded zirconia tubes. The problem of carbon deposition when NiO/Zirconia anodes operate in methane, the main component of natural gas, was investigated. Another aim was to address the problem of coking with an effort to moderate carbon deposition by using additives to the NiO/Zirconia anode. Temperature programmed reduction (TPR) was used to study the reaction characteristicso f NiO/Zirconia anodes.T he carbon depositedo n thesea nodesa fter methane decomposition and reforming was characterized using temperature programmed oxidation (TPO). The anodes were placed in a reactor (stainless-steel, alumina or zirconia) tube in a test assembly developed for an extruded tubular SOFC. The reactor inlet was connected to a flexible gas handling system and the exhaust to a continuously sampling mass spectrometer. This system also allowed simultaneous study of electrical and catalytic measurementsThe various conditions for methane reforming have been shown to influence the character of carbon deposited and the quantity deposited. Conditions such as anode calcination temperature, anode reduction regime, reforming temperature and reforming time have all been shown to influence the reactions occuring on the anode including carbon deposition, subsequently characterized by TPO. NiO/Zirconia powders have also been shown to behave differently from NiO/Zirconia anodes adhered to zirconia tubes. An alkali metal additive has been shown to moderate carbon deposition and improve cell performance. Small additions of Li, typically 1 mol %, to the Ni/Zirconia anode cause a decrease in carbon deposition after reforming at temperatures of 1123 K and 1173 K. The activation energy of surface carbon removed by oxygen is lowered by approximately 50 kJ mot' for the 1 mol % Li doped Ni/Zirconia anode compared to the undoped powder. Anodes doped with Li displayed greater cell performances. The improvements seen with these additives show that their use could offer a viable alternative to conventional anodes in current SOFC systems. Tubular solid oxide fuel cells have been tested in a custom built rig whereby electronic and catalytic measurements can be sampled simultaneously. This was used to monitor the influence of drawing current on the reactions occurring on the anode. The presence of alkali Li on the doped Ni anode surface has been shown to interfere with surface reactions under electrochemical load/steam reforming

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Thermodynamic and kinetic experiments have been performed at ionic strength 0.30 to elucidate the relationship between the structure of pig heart H₄-LDH (lactate dehydrogenase) and its catalytic function. Calorimetry and fluorescence were used to determine all the thermodynamic parameters for binary and ternary complex formation. TFL (trifluorolactate) and oxamate were employed as nonreactive analogs of the substrates lactate and pyruvate, respectively, to examine ternary complex formation in the absence of the ensuing redox step. At pH 6 where there is no apparent change in the protonation state of LDH upon binary complex formation, LDH binds NADH more tightly than NAD due to an entropy effect, i.e., only 1.1 out of the 3.1 kcal/mole difference in free energy changes is enthalpic in origin. The heat capacities of LDH·NAD (-150 ± 30 cal/K-mole) and LDH·NADH (-220 ± 40 cal/K-mole) formation at pH 6 and 25°C are relatively small and similar. These results suggest the importance of charge interactions in coenzyme binding. Structural information indicates that Arg-106, a positively charged residue of a loop of polypeptide in LDH which at equilibrium alternates between two conformations, open (extended into solvent) and closed (part of the active site), interacts unfavorably with the positively charged nicotinamide ring of NAD when the loop is in the closed conformation. Thermodynamic experiments demonstrate the suitability of TFL as an analog of lactate. TFL displays the correct specificity by binding to LDH·NAD more tightly (Kₐ = 400 M⁻¹) than to LDH·NADH (Kₐ = 34 M⁻¹) at pH 8 and 25°C. This binding requires that an enzymic residue with a pK = 6.7 not be protonated in accordance with the role of His-193 in analog binding in crystalline ternary complexes. Since the free energy change of the redox step is small, the difference in the free energy changes of formation of LDH·NAD·TFL and LDH·NADH·oxamate from LDH+NAD+TFL and LDH+NADH+oxamate, respectively, should approximate the free energy change of the actual enzymic reaction. The free energy and enthalpy changes of this model reaction are within 10% of the values of the actual reaction. Steady-state kinetic experiments further support the use of TFL as an analog of lactate. At pH 8 and 25°C TFL acts mainly as competitive inhibitor of lactate during lactate oxidation. The difference between the TFL dissociation constant (2.5 mM) and its inhibition constant (8.0 mM) means that TFL is not a simple dead-end inhibitor, i.e., LDH·NAD·TFL must be connected to the productive pathway of the reaction at more than one point. This is consistent with the existence of two conformational states of LDH·NAD. Additional support for the existence of two conformational states of LDH comes from analysis of the heat capacity changes of ternary complex formation. The large negative heat capacity changes at 25°C of TFL binding to LDH·NAD at pH 8 (-150 cal/K-mole) and of oxamate binding to LDH·NADH at pH 8 (-330 cal/K-mole) and pH 6 (-420 cal/K-mole) are partly attributed to a reaction heat effect arising from a shift in the conformational equilibrium of LDH to one in which the loop is in the closed position. As shown by calorimetry and fluorescence, phosphate binds to a single class of sites of LDH. The thermodynamic parameters of this process at pH 6 and 25°C are ΔG = -30 kcal/mole, ΔH = -5.1 kcal/mole, and ΔS = -7.0 cal/K-mole. Binding is not at the active site.

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The work presented in this dissertation focuses on the [FeFe]-hydrogenase active site as inspiration for the design and synthesis of complexes capable of the electrocatalytic generation of molecular hydrogen from protons and electrons. The majority of work discussed uses gas-phase photoelectron spectroscopy (PES) and density functional theory (DFT) to probe and analyze the bonding and electron distribution in potential catalysts. These two techniques are also used to explore the nature of cyanide as a ligand, due to its presence and unknown role in these enzymes. This dissertation begins with the study of (η⁵-C₅H₅)Fe(CO)₂X (FpX) and (η⁵- C₅Me₅)Fe(CO)₂X (Fp*X) complexes where X = H⁻, Cl⁻, and CN⁻ to assess and compare their π-accepting abilities, which is contradicted in the literature. The shifts in ionization energies measured by PES provide a measure of the relative bonding effects. The results indicate cyanide is, overall, a weak π-acceptor, and the σ- and π-donor interactions are important to understanding the chemistry. The molecule [(μ-ortho-C₆H₄S₂)][Fe(CO)₃]₂ was examined, in part due to the delocalized π-orbitals of the C₆H₄S₂ ligand, which could facilitate the redox chemistry necessary for catalysis. Computations show that upon ionization, the complex adopts a semi-bridging carbonyl; termed “rotated structure”. The reorganization energy of this geometry change was determined, which may provide understanding of how the active site in the enzyme enables electron transfer to achieve this catalysis. Next complexes of the form (μ-SCH₂XCH₂S)[Fe(CO)₃]₂, where X=CH₂, O, NH, ᵗBuN, MeN, were explored in order to provide insight to the unknown atom at the central bridging position of the alkyl chain in the [FeFe]-hydrogenase enzyme. The likelihood of a rotated cationic structure is also shown, with reorganization energy values similar to that seen for [(μ-ortho-C₆H₄S₂)][Fe(CO)₃]₂. The final chapter explores the replacement of selenium for sulfur in (μ- X(CH₂)₃X)[Fe(CO)₃]₂ and (μ-X(CH₂)₂CH(CH₃)X)[Fe(CO)₃]₂, where X is either sulfur or selenium. The PES data show destabilization of the selenium complex ionizations compared to the sulfur complexes and a lower reorganization energy was calculated. The computed HOMO-LUMO gap energy for the selenium-based complex is roughly 0.17 eV smaller than for the sulfur analogs, which may indicate a lower reduction potential is needed.

A series of alkyldithiolatodiironhexacarbonyl complexes of the form &mu:-(RS2)Fe2(CO)6, where RS2 is: 1,2-ethanedithiolate (eth-cat), cis-1,2-cyclopentanedithiolate (pent-cat), cis-1,2-cyclohexanedithiolate (hex-cat), and 2-exo,3-exo-bicyclo[2.2.1]heptanedithiolate (norbor-cat), are reported. These complexes display structures and catalytic behavior toward production of molecular hydrogen with similarities to the active site of the diiron hydrogenase enzymes. Hydrogen production is desirable as an alternative fuel source and these catalysts are capable of producing H2 in the presence of weak acid under electrochemical conditions. Through understanding of the factors which control the catalytic activity of these catalysts it may be possible to contribute to the development of a hydrogen fuel economy.Significant scan-rate dependence under electrochemical conditions is observed, resulting in an initial 1-to-2 electron reduction depending on how quickly the singly reduced species can reorganize. The rate of this reorganization directly corresponds to the internal strain within the system and can be ranked in the following order of increasing rate of reorganization: pent-cat < norbor-cat < eth-cat < hex-cat. Additionally, these catalysts all successfully catalyze protons to molecular hydrogen under electrochemical conditions in the presence of acetic acid via an ECEC catalytic mechanism, where, E is an electrochemical step (reduction) and C is a chemical step (protonation).Density functional theory computations support the reported catalytic processes by calculating physically observable quantities, such as: pKa values, reduction potentials, adiabatic ionization energies and carbonyl stretching frequencies in the infrared (IR) region. These quantities were used to suggest reasonable reactive intermediates within the catalytic cycle. The electronic structure of each catalyst was examined using photoelectron spectroscopy and the global minimum cationic structure, in all cases, involves a structure with a bridging carbonyl ligand, akin to that of the enzyme active site.The most significant outcome of this work is the unprecedented diiron center rotation upon reduction. As conformational strain involving the dithiolate ligand increases, the rate of reorganization of the anion increases leading to cleavage of an iron-sulfur bond to provide an alternative protonation site, a key step toward molecular hydrogen formation. This site is less basic than the unrotated form and helps evolve H2 with thermodynamic favorability.

A series of bidentate amidate ligands with variable groups R' and R" abbreviated by [R"(NO)R'] and adamantyl substituted tetradentate amidate ligands abbreviated by Ad[0₂N₂] were utilized as ancillaries for Ti, Zr, and Hf. Protonolysis routes into homoleptic amidate complexes, tris(amidate) mono(amido), bis(amidate) bis(amido), and bis(amidate) dibenzyl complexes are high yielding when performed with tetrakis(amido) and tetrabenzyl group 4 starting materials. Many of these complexes have been characterized in both the solid-state and in the solution phase, where in the latter case these complexes are fluxional and undergo exchange processes. Multiple geometric isomers are possible with the mixed N,0 chelate provided by the amidate ligands, and geometric isomerization of bis(amidate) bis(amido) complexes has been examined through X-ray crystallographic and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. Isomerization is dictated largely by the steric bulk present at the N of the amidate ligands, and is proposed to proceed through a K²-K¹-K² ligand isomerization mechanism, which is supported by crystallographic evidence of K¹-bound amidate ligands. The amidate ligand system binds to these metals in a largely electrostatic fashion, with poor orbital overlap, generating highly electrophilic metal centers. The bis(amidate) dibenzyl complexes of Zr and Hf are reactive towards insertion, abstraction, and protonolysis. Insertion of isocyanides into the Zr-C bonds of [DMP(NO) tBu]₂Zr(CH₂Ph₂ results in the formation of ƞ₂-iminoacyl complexes, which can either undergo thermally induced C=C coupling to generate an enediamido complex (aryl isocyanides), or rearrange to generate a bis(amidate) bis(vinylamido) complex (alkyl isocyanides). Benzyl abstraction to generate cationic Zr bis(amidate) benzyl complexes is also possible through reaction with [Ph₃C][B(C₆F₅)4] or B(C₆F₅)₃ Terminal imido complexes with novel pyramidal geometries are generated through protonolysis of bis(amidate) bis(amido) Ti and Zr complexes with primary aryl amines. DFT calculations demonstrate the existence of a Zr⁻₌N triple bond for these complexes. Dimeric imido complexes have been characterized in the solid state, but are not maintained in solution. Cycloaddition reactions of the terminal Zr imido complexes with C=0 bonds result in the formation of proposed oxo complexes and organic metathesis products. Catalytic aminoalkene cyclohydroamination has also been realized with these complexes, generating N-heterocyclic products. A series of kinetic and labeling studies support an imido-cycloaddition mechanism for catalytic cyclohydroamination of primary aminoalkenes with neutral bis(amidate) Ti and Zr precatalysts. The intermediate Ti imido complex, K²-[Dipp(NO)tBu-K¹_[DiPP(No) tBu]Ti=NCH₂CPh₂CH₂CH=CH₂(NHMe₂), has been isolated and characterized in the solid-state and in solution. Amine stabilized imido complexes of this type are invoked as the resting state for the catalytic reaction, and solution phase data support a chair-like geometry, where the alkene is coordinated to the metal center. A diastereoselectivity study supports this proposed solution structure. Eyring and Arrhenius parameters, as well as isolation of a 7-coordinate model imido complex, support a seven-coordinate transition state for the rate-determining metallacycle protonolysis reaction. In contrast, secondary aminoalkene hydroamination catalysis with cationic Zr benzyl complexes is proposed to proceed through a σ-bond insertion mechanism. Proton loss from cationic Zr amido complexes to generate imido species is proposed with primary aminoalkenes, and the resultant neutral imido complexes can catalyze the cyclization of these substrates by the aforementioned imido-cycloaddition mechanism. The ability of the amidate ligand system to promote both mechanisms is unique in the field of alkene hydroamination catalysis.

New Gold(I) Alkynophylic CatalystsAutor: Mihai RaducanDirector: Antonio M. EchavarrenResumen para TESEO en castellano: El uso de nitrilos aromáticos ricos en electrones permitió el aislamiento de nuevos catalizadores catiónicos de oro(I) estables al aire. [Au(tmbn)2](SbF6) (tmbn = 2,4,6-trimethoxybenzonitrilo), sintetizado a partir de AuCl, sirve como precursor para otros complejos de oro(I). Sólo uno o los dos ligandos tmbn pudieron ser sustituidos con ligandos fosforados, nitrogenados o carbonados y los complejos resultantes se pudieron aislar mediante cristalización. Se estudió la actividad catalítica de estos complejos en la ciclación de 1,6-eninos y reacciones relacionadas. También se han sido aislado y caracterizado catalizadores de oro conteniendo fosfatos quirales.En presencia de complejos de oro(I), los 1,6-eninos conteniendo alcoholes o éteres propargílicos sufren una migración estereoespecífica intramolecular 1,5 dando lugar a cationes de alil-oro. Estos intermedios se pueden atrapar intra- o intermolecularmente con alquenos, dienos o éteres bencílicos. Esta reacción estereoespecífica puede dar lugar a compuestos relacionados con los sesquiterpenos 4-epiglobulol, 4-aromadendreno, con los carotanes y los schinsanwilsonenos.New Gold(I) Alkynophylic CatalystsAutor: Mihai RaducanDirector: Antonio M. EchavarrenResumen para TESEO en inglés: Employing electron rich aromatic nitriles as labile ligands gold(I) catalysts were isolated as air stable solids. [Au(tmbn)2](SbF6) (tmbn = 2,4,6-trimethoxybenzonitrile), synthesized starting from AuCl, serves as a precursor for other gold(I) complexes. Only one or both of the tmbn ligands could be substituted by N, P, or C ligands and the resulting complexes could be isolated by crystallization. The catalytic activity of these complexes was studied for the cyclization of 1,6-enynes and other related reactions. Gold(I) catalysts containing chiral phosphates were also isolated and characterized. Upon activation with Au(I) cationic catalysts, 1,6-enynes with propargyl alcohols and ethers undergo stereospecific intramolecular 1,5-migration via allyl-gold cations. These intermediates were trapped inter- or intramolecularly with alkenes, dienes and benzyl ethers. This stereospecific reaction can lead to compounds, related to the sesquiterpenes 4-epiglobulol and 4-aromadendrene, the carotanes and the schinsanwilsonenes.