The Norse colonisation of the North Atlantic from circa 800 AD onwards had a significant effect on Shetland. The archipelago became very Scandinavian and the culture of the local population almost disappeared. The research agenda of this multidisciplinary research was to investigate all the aspects of the Scandinavian settlement in Northmavine, Yell, Unst, and Fetlar: the extent and nature of the occupation, the reasons for the settlement pattern, whether the area functioned as a single sea-based unit or several island/land-based units, the historical, linguistic and place-name evidence, the economy and resources, the transition periods between the late Iron Age and the Viking Age and the Viking Age and the late Norse period, and the ecclesiastical evidence and the pagan graves. To achieve the agenda, all the known evidence of the Norse settlement was assessed, after which a programme of intensive fieldwork was carried out. It consisted of the re-assessment of known sites and of the attempt to discover hitherto unknown sites dating from the Viking Age and late Norse period. The fieldwork resulted in the discovery of several hitherto unknown sites. The analysed data indicated that the research area was extensively settled during the period of Norse occupation, the settlement intensifying during the late Norse period. Evidence of the development of market economy and settlement specialisation was identified, particularly during the late Norse period. Evidence also suggests at least partial control of the resources in Shetland. The various strands of data were combined and a geographical model of the Norse settlement and its development was created. The data suggested relative stability in the settlement units and their distribution during the last millennia in Shetland. One major outcome of the research was the hypothesis that the settlements, after which the scattalds were named, possibly represent the primary Norse settlement of northern Shetland. The research provided a more complete picture of the Norse society in northern Shetland, which was a focal point during the Scandinavian settlement. A model for the Norse settlement and its development was created. It also highlighted the need for further work in order to fully understand the development of the settlement and economy and to establish the dates of some of the archaeological remains.

This thesis illustrates how geophysical and geochemical methods can be combined to study archaeological sites and obtain enhanced interpretations of the results using the complementary information they provide. Whilst these two disciplines tend to be used independently, this thesis brings them together, with a view to exploring their relationships and developing strategies that lead to non-destructive and cost-effective surveys. The investigation focuses on the correlation of geophysical and geochemical results over common archaeological features and their analysis using soil geochemistry in order to understand the factors of contrast involved in their detection. Five case study sites in Scotland were selected, each one presenting a specific challenge to be assessed by the integrated methodology developed in this thesis. The research employed a range of geophysical (earth resistance, magnetometry, magnetic susceptibility, FDEM and GPR) and geochemical (total phosphate and multi-element analysis) techniques routinely used in archaeological prospection. The different geophysical responses obtained over targeted archaeological features were considered with respect to soil texture, organic matter content, pH, conductivity and chemical composition from archaeological deposits, topsoil and subsoil samples. The results not only provide a nuanced understanding of the character of the archaeological features surveyed, but begin to develop a better insight of how the setting of a site may affect geophysical and geochemical datasets at Scottish archaeological sites. This thesis concludes that the detection of archaeological anomalies depends upon inter-related and site-specific contrast factors including: general site settings (e.g. the effect of highly variable glacial drift deposits), the type of features to be detected (e.g. cut or impervious), and the effect of soil post-depositional processes inside archaeological features and surrounding matrix. For example, at the prehistoric site at Forteviot site (Perthshire) redox processes inside archaeological ditches contribute to their negative magnetic response. Also, chemical composition related to anthropogenic organic materials may enhance the conductivity of theoretical impervious features as illustrated at the Bay of Skaill site (Orkney).

Recent works have offered an alternative to traditional archaeological classification, particularly in the field of ceramic studies. These use theories of human categorisation processes derived from other areas of research, in particular psychology and linguistics. The purpose of this thesis was - through reference to the advances made in studies of this kind - to re-interpret a body of metalwork evidence, in particular the 'founder's hoards' of the 'Carp's Tongue' Complex in Essex and Kent. These hoards include a wide range of artefact categories, often surviving in fragmentary condition, and have traditionally been interpreted as an inevitable by-product of the metalworking process. By examining the nature of the contents and the structure of these hoards, and by making a detailed appraisal of the manner in which each of the individual artefact categories included was treated prior to its inclusion in the hoard, it was possible to establish that there was indeed a strong association with the metalworking process. It also became apparent that regularised methods of destruction were employed upon the artefact categories included in these hoards, and that specific selection processes operated during the accumulation of the hoard contents, with certain artefact categories being favoured for inclusion. It therefore seemed likely that, instead of being a direct by-product of the metalworking process, these hoards were instead collections of metalwork which deliberately referenced the metalworking process, as well as other routine activities, such as the agricultural cycle. By considering these findings within a wider context, it was possible to see these hoards as functioning as material props in ceremonies which created metaphorical associations between activities often perceived by archaeologists as being secular in character with more metaphysical aspects of existence, such as the transformation of the body after death.

The present work represents a re-assessment of Roman siegecraft, based on the twin foundations of a comprehensive collection of historical narratives, and a thoroughgoing discussion of the archaeological evidence. The historical material is presented chronologically, and analysed statistically in order to test various common assumptions, such as the supposed Roman predilection for blockade as the principal besieging strategy, and circumvallation as the principle tactic; the statistical findings are tabulated for ease of reference. This provides a context for the ensuing study of the archaeological material, gathered and discussed under the three headings of encampments, circumvallations, and embankments. The phenomenon of the embankment is subjected to particular scrutiny, in order to question the common acceptance of Napoléon's tripartite, timber-built design. Separate analyses of Roman artillery and siege-machinery round off the work, exposing several persistent fallacies concerning the operation and siting of stone-projecting catapults, and discussing the function of the different siege machines. Finally, amongst other myths, the recurring theme of decline in siegecraft is dismissed in the conclusion.

This thesis details the archaeological remains of the period 1600-1870 by focusing on the landscapes of transformation within the county of Ayrshire, south west Scotland. It presents an alternative view to the understanding of the industrial and agricultural past by employing a theoretical structure which bonds together Industrial Archaeology and Medieval or Later Rural Settlement studies in a bid to develop a more integrated appreciation of the history of the recent past. The theoretical model of vernacular and political landscapes, combined with landscape studies and archaeological assessment are presented as key mechanisms for interpretation of this period. Analysis is concentrated across a wide variety of remains from postimprovement settlement studies to the archaeology of domestic and mass production industries. This holistic approach is proposed as central to a clearer comprehension of the complexities of landscape history and historical archaeology.

The research presented within this work proposes and develops a new approach to the analysis of early medieval carved stone monuments in North-western Europe. Three data sets of stone monuments, and their associated archaeological sites from disparate regions of north-western Europe—Ireland, Scotland and Scandinavia—are considered through a uniquely developed comparative methodology. This comparative approach was developed to create new insights and understanding of the use and functions of stone monuments during the early medieval period. Undeniably, this period witnessed one of the deepest and most significant transformations in European society and culture with the spread of Christianity across north-western Europe. The emergence and establishment of Christianity not only altered the beliefs of people, but also facilitated shifts in power between secular and ecclesiastical elites. The use of carved stone as a medium is an important characteristic in northern societies. And indeed, from the 5th century onwards, these monuments became prominent in the landscape, as objects of devotion and marks of political power, both secular and ecclesiastical. The comparative approach developed for this study encompasses three major themes, place, movement, and monument, through which the case studies selected are analysed and discussed. The results are interpreted from a multi-scaled perspective: on a small level, through the monument, its identity and use as a mnemonic object; on a middle level, through the landscape settings and connection to ancient places; and on a large level, through the use and function of stone monuments within the conversion process and first centuries of Christianisation. For the latter perspective, the relationship between secular elites and the Church is closely examined. Each regional selection is analysed from a holistic perspective comprising the study of the monument, and when available, its landscape setting and place-name, and mentions in historical sources. The results of this research demonstrate that analysing monuments, and their contexts, through a thematic approach rather than a geographical one enables the comparative process to emphasise similarities and contrasts, while allowing deeper understanding and new interpretations. Consequently, this exhibits the need for future research on carved stone monuments utilising the theoretical and methodological approaches developed by this work to further our understanding and interpretations of the place and role of these monuments in the early medieval world.

The period of the 18th and 19th centuries was one of great change in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland. Improvement, the Jacobite Rebellions, and the Clearances transformed its communities and landscapes. These events have rightly been a focus of research. However, archaeological approaches have often sought simply to illustrate these processes, rather than create new narratives about life in the past. The resulting picture of the period can over-emphasise economic change whilst failing to reflect the richness and variety of everyday life. This thesis aims to suggest a new approach to the place and period, one which addresses matters often ignored in previous work. Whilst it has an archaeological sensibility, it draws on ideas from outside archaeology, such as landscape theory and on Gaelic oral tradition, an underused resource, to create a novel and broad-based approach to the period. An important part of the method is a synchronic approach that seeks to reconstruct the experience of the landscape at very particular times, engaging fully with the everyday experience of landscape rather than grand historical narratives. Two Hebridean case studies are utilised: Hiort (St Kilda) and Loch Aoineart, South Uist. Thematic discussions drawn from these landscapes are intended as critical assessments of the efficacy of the approach, as well as new narratives about life in the past in themselves. The thesis concludes by comparing the two case studies, reflecting on the merits of the approach, discussing recurrent themes in the work, and considering its wider context and implications. It is concluded that taking a novel approach to the case study landscapes can create narratives that often contrast or expand upon those produced by previous scholars, allow for a more detailed consideration of everyday life in the period, and open up new areas for archaeological enquiry. The extensive and critical use of evidence from Gaelic oral tradition is highlighted as crucial in understanding life and society in the period. The thesis questions the utility of grand historical narratives as a framework for archaeological study of post-medieval Gaeldom and suggests that our understanding of the past is best served by approaching the evidence in ways which allows for many different voices and stories from the past to emerge.

This thesis concerns the analysis of the socio-economic transformation of communities in Bronze Age southwestern Cyprus. Through the adoption of a dialectical perspective of analysis, individuals and environment are considered part of the same unity: they are cooperating agents in shaping society and culture. The Bronze Age is a period of intense transformation in the organization of local communities, made of a continuous renegotiation of the socio-economic roles and interactions. The archaeological record from this portion of the island allows one to go beyond the investigation of the complex and articulated transition from the EBA-MBA agro-pastoral and self-sufficient communities to the LBA centralized and trade-oriented urban-centres. Through a shifting of analytical scales, the emerging picture suggests major transformations in the individual-community-territory dialectical relations. A profound change in the materials conditions of social life, as well as in the superstructural realm, was particularly entailed by the dissolution of the relation to the earth, due to the emergence of new forms of land exploitation/ownership and to the shift of the settlement pattern in previously unknown areas. One of the key points of this thesis is the methodological challenge of working with legacy survey data as I re-analysed a diverse archaeological legacy, which is the result of more than fifty years of survey projects, rescue and research-oriented excavations, as well as casual discoveries. Source critique and data evaluation are essential requirements in an integrative and cross-disciplinary regional perspective, in the comprehensive processing of heterogeneous archaeological and environmental datasets. Through the estimation of data precision and certainty, I developed an effective - but simple - method to critically evaluate existing datasets and to inter-correlate them without losing their original complexity. This powerful method for data integration can be applied to similar datasets belonging to other regions and other periods as it originates from the evaluation of larger methodological and theoretical issues that are not limited to my spatial and temporal focus. As I argue in this thesis, diverse archaeological legacies can be efficiently re-analysed through an integrative and regional methodology. The adoption of a regional scale of analysis can provide an excellent perspective on the complexity of transformations in ancient societies, thus creating a fundamental bridge between the local stories and grand landscape narratives.

Visually-compelling small finds have traditionally been examined for their appearances. These artefacts, consisting of figurines, ornaments and body adornments, for example, have been primarily studied for the meanings that the images they project might have held. Strikingly fewer are analyses of these objects' material qualities. Frequently ignored are their composition, the sourcing and working of their materials, or their materiality. The aim of this thesis is to reconcile considerations of the visual and material aspects of visually compelling small finds. It is here argued that examinations of the material aspects of artefacts can reveal important information about the course of their production and consumption, and about the nature of the relationships involved therein. The volume's reconciliatory endeavour is thus undertaken with the creation of a new materially-inclusive, biographically-orientated, methodologically-holistic and multi-scalar framework. Bolstered by theories drawn from philosophy and the social sciences, this methodology allows for closer investigations into the web of closely-knit inter-nodal relationships maintained between humans, materials and the environment during the making and the use of material culture. The following chapters present the results of the framework's application to the clay anthropomorphic figurines from the Minoan peak sanctuary of Philioremos. The various ways in which clay was engaged with during the different stages of the figurines' becoming and unbecoming are explored. The types of relationships that the artefacts' production and consumption depended upon and engendered, alongside the types of knowledge these dynamics were rooted in, are then discussed. Subsequently, broader considerations of the use of the human body as a representational theme are undertaken. In reconciling examinations of the visual and material qualities of the Philioremos figurines, this thesis demonstrates the utility of a materially-integrative approach. Ultimately, this study contributes to two main areas of current archaeological interest simultaneously: the analysis of prehistoric material culture and the examination of Minoan peak sanctuary anthropomorphic figurines more specifically.

The purpose of this research was to broaden our knowledge of the dietary changes and timing of the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in Scotland. Despite the rich number of archaeological sites around mainland Scotland and the Orkney Isles that date to the transition period (c.4000 to 3600 BC), bones of humans and especially of fauna are rarely recovered. This lack of skeletal material necessary to investigate individual human diet has resulted in a gap in our understanding about dietary changes that occurred during the transition from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to farming. One of the most widely used and reliable scientific tools available to investigate ancient diet is δ13C and δ15N isotope analysis; however, this technique requires samples of human bone and also a representative sample of bones from animals from the same spatial and chronological context as the humans to form an isotopic baseline. Studies of dietary change during the Scottish Mesolithic-Neolithic transition so far have largely relied on poor quality baselines to interpret the diets of the relatively small number of humans recovered from this period. A solution was therefore required in order to ensure that interpretations of dietary change during this time that employed stable isotope analysis of bone collagen were better defined and more secure. In addition to the problems of interpreting changes in the diet, there are questions surrounding the timing of the Scottish Mesolithic-Neolithic transition as well. The dietary changes were characterised by replacing marine protein with terrestrial animal protein, however we are uncertain as to how fast and complete this shift in diet was. There is long-standing debate regarding how important marine protein was in the early Neolithic diet. If marine protein was only a minor component of the diet, this would be undetected by traditional interpretations of stable isotope data. However, the radiocarbon ages of the bone collagen of these humans may be affected by oceanic 14C. Ancient marine derived carbon in human bone collagen is on average c.400 years older than terrestrial carbon, resulting in the need to correct the ages of mixed marine/terrestrial samples for this Marine Reservoir Effect. Undetected marine protein in the Neolithic diet would result in human bones being assigned radiocarbon dates that are older than the true age of the sample. An improved method of interpreting stable isotope data from bone collagen was therefore sought to address these questions of timing in the Scottish Mesolithic-Neolithic transition. δ13C, δ15N and δ34S isotope analysis was employed on human and faunal bones from Mesolithic and Neolithic sites predominantly in Orkney and the west coast of Scotland. Isotope faunal baselines were supplemented, where appropriate, with modern faunal samples. The abundance of marine and terrestrial resources in the human diet was modelled using the Bayesian mixing model, FRUITS (food reconstruction using isotopic transferred signals). Where marine protein was detected in the human diet, the radiocarbon dates of these samples were calibrated using the mixed marine/terrestrial radiocarbon calibration curve and compared against previously calculated dates, where these were available. It was possible to supplement marine faunal isotope baselines with modern marine samples; however, modern terrestrial samples were unsuitable analogues. δ34S was also found to be an unsuitable proxy for diet in this research. Small amounts of dietary marine protein were detected in the majority of Neolithic humans; however, marine consumption did not have a significant effect on the radiocarbon dates of these individuals. The key finding of this research was, therefore, that the transition from the Mesolithic lifestyle to the Neolithic in Scotland was a lengthy and gradual process, contributing to the debate regarding the nature of the transition. The chronology of the transition that has been previously established by radiocarbon dating is secure: while modelling the isotope data in FRUITS resulted, in most cases, in a greater age range in calibrated radiocarbon dates, they were not erroneously old, as initially predicted.