Le développement des plantes nécessite la coordination des mécanismes de différenciation des cellules méristématiques en cellules hautement spécialisées: la division, la croissance et la formation de la géométrie cellulaire. La différenciation et la morphogenèse cellulaires sont étroitement liées et régulées par les propriétés mécaniques de la paroi cellulaire. Les mécanismes conduisant à l’émergence de diverses formes et fonctions des tissus végétaux sont complexes et encore peu compris. Ma thèse de doctorat approfondie les principes mécaniques à la base de la formation des cellules épidermiques ondulées. Je me suis également penché sur l’étude des avantages mécaniques que confèrent les motifs imbriqués. Les cellules épidermiques sont constituées de deux parois cellulaires périclines parallèles reliées par des parois anticlines. Aux jonctions, les cellules épidermiques forment des cavités et des saillies imbriquées les unes aux autres. Des images en 3D, prises en microscopie confocale, de cotylédons marqués par des fluorophores spécifiques à la cellulose montrent une déposition accrue de cellulose au niveau des cavités des parois périclines s’étendant le long des parois anticlines. Le marquage des cotylédons par COS488 démontre également une plus grande abondance de pectines dé-estérifiées aux mêmes sites. J'ai développé des modèles par éléments finis de la déformation de la paroi cellulaire et simulé les disparités biochimiques en alternant les régions plus rigides à travers et au long des parois périclines des deux côtés d'une paroi anticline. Le modèle montre que les parois rigidifiées non déformables se développent en cavités lorsque la pression interne étire la paroi cellulaire. Le modèle suggère également la présence de contraintes mécaniques plus élevées au niveau des saillies. Les résultats du modèle indiquent qu'une boucle de rétroaction positive entre la contrainte et la rigidité de la paroi cellulaire générerait les formes ondulées à partir de différences infinitésimales de rigidité ou de contrainte de la paroi cellulaire. En outre, le modèle suggère que des événements de flambage stochastiques peuvent initier la morphogenèse des cellules. On a longtemps émis l'hypothèse que le motif imbriqué de cellules épidermiques améliore l'adhérence cellule-cellule et donc la résistance de traction de l'épiderme. L'étirage des feuilles d'Arabidopsis de type sauvage ou du mutant any1 (caractérisé par une réduction de l'ondulation cellulaire) n'a montré aucun détachement cellulaire en cas de rupture du tissu. J'ai émis l'hypothèse que les jonctions des cellules ondulantes renforcent la résistance de l'épiderme contre la propagation de fissures. J'ai observé une grande anisotropie dans la réponse mécanique à la rupture de l'épiderme d'oignon selon l’orientation des cellules. Les fissures qui suivent l’alignement des cellules se propagent sans trop de résistance, entraînant une rupture fragile du tissu. Ceci découlerait de la propagation de la ligne de rupture par suite du détachement des cellules. Les fissures se propagent difficilement lorsqu’elles sont perpendiculaires à l'axe principal des cellules. En fracturant des feuilles dont les cellules épidermiques sont ondulées, j'ai remarqué que les fissures se propageaient, par intermittence, à la fois au niveau des jonctions de la cellule et de la paroi cellulaire. J'ai émis l'hypothèse que ce motif de fracture d'épiderme à cellules ondulées se caractérisait par une augmentation de la résistance à la fracture. Pour n’étudier que les effets de la géométrie des cellules sur cette résistance, j’ai éliminé le rôle que jouerait l’anisotropie des matériaux en concevant des modèles physiques macroscopiques de l'épiderme. J’ai gravé au laser des motifs cellulaires sur du poly-méthacrylate de méthyle. De cette façon, le matériau isotrope permettait d'étudier uniquement l'effet de la géométrie cellulaire. Alors que la fracturation des spécimens de contrôle sans gravure et des spécimens avec des cellules gravées longitudinalement ont démontré une rupture fragile, une fracturation transversale aux rangées cellulaires, dans les modèles mimant des cellules d’oignon ou des cellules ondulées de cotylédons d’Arabidopsis, a montré une résistance accrue à la fracture. En conclusion, je démontre que la forme ondulée des cellules épidermiques est le résultat d’une distribution alternée de la rigidité dans la paroi cellulaire, un processus qui pourrait être initié par une anisotropie de stress stochastique due au flambement. De plus, ces formes cellulaires augmentent la résistance à la rupture de l'épiderme végétal en le protégeant contre la propagation des fissures; un mécanisme de défense ingénieux pour les surfaces les plus exposées. / Plant development entails cell division, cell growth and shaping, and the differentiation of meristematic cells into highly specialized cell types. Differentiation and cell shape are closely linked and involve the regulation of the mechanical properties of the cell wall. The mechanisms leading to the generation of the diverse array of shapes and functionalities found in plant tissues are perplexing and poorly understood. In my Ph.D. research, I investigated the mechanical principles underlying the formation of wavy leaf pavement cells. Further, I studied the putative mechanical advantage that emerges from the interlocking patterns. Epidermal pavement cells consist of two parallel periclinal walls connected by vertical anticlinal walls. At the borders, wavy pavement cells make interlocking indentations and protrusions. 3D confocal micrographs of cotyledons stained with cellulose-specific fluorophores revealed a significant accumulation of cellulose at the sites of indentation on the periclinal walls extending down the anticlinal walls. Staining the cotyledon samples with COS488 also suggested a higher abundance of de-esterified pectin at these sites. I developed finite element models of the cell wall deformation and simulated the biochemical inhomogeneities by assigning alternately stiffened regions across and along the periclinal walls on two sides of an anticlinal wall. It was observed that the non-deforming stiffened regions develop into sites of indentations when the internal pressure stretches the cell wall. The model also suggested higher stresses to associate with the neck regions. The model results indicate that a positive feedback loop between stress and cell wall stiffness could generate wavy shapes starting from infinitesimally small differences in cell wall stiffness or stress. Further, the model suggests that stochastic buckling events can initiate the cell shaping process. It has been long hypothesized that the interlocking pattern of pavement cells improves cell-cell adhesion and thus the tensile strength of the epidermis. Stretching to rupture the leaf samples of wild-type Arabidopsis or any1 mutant with reduced cell waviness did not show any cell detachment upon failure. However, I hypothesized the undulating cell borders could enhance the resistance of the epidermis against the propagation of damage. I observed a considerable anisotropy in the tear behavior of onion epidermis parallel and perpendicular to the cells’ main axis. Tears along the cell lines propagated without much resistance resulting in brittle failure of the tissue. This was observed to originate from tears propagating by cell detachment. Perpendicular to the cells’ main axis, tears had considerable difficulty in propagating. Fracturing the leaf samples with wavy epidermal cells, I noticed the cracks propagated in both the cell borders and the cell wall intermittently. I hypothesized that this pattern of fracture in the epidermis with wavy cells indicates an increase in the fracture toughness. To untangle the influence of material anisotropy from the cell geometry on fracture toughness, I designed macroscopic physical models of the epidermis by laser engraving the cell patterns on polymethylmethacrylate. This way, the isotropic material would allow studying only the effect of cell geometry. While fracturing the control specimens with no engraving and the specimens with longitudinally placed cells demonstrated a brittle fracture, fractures transverse to cell lines in the onion cell patterns or across the Arabidopsis cotyledon wavy cell pattern showed an increased fracture toughness. I suggest the wavy shape of pavement cells in the epidermis results from the alternate placement of stiffer regions in the cell wall, a process that can initiate from a stochastic stress anisotropy due to buckling. Further, these shapes increase the fracture toughness of the plant epidermis protecting it against the spread of damage; an ingenious defense mechanism at the most exposed surfaces.

During mitosis, adherent animal cells undergo a drastic shape change, from essentially flat to round, in a process known as mitotic cell rounding (MCR). The aim of this thesis was to critically examine the physical and biological basis of MCR. The experimental part of this thesis employed a combined optical microscope-atomic force microscope (AFM) setup in conjunction with flat tipless cantilevers to analyze cell mechanics, shape and volume. To this end, two AFM assays were developed: the constant force assay (CFA), which applies constant force to cells and measures the resultant height, and the constant height assay (CHA), which confines cell height and measures the resultant force. These assays were deployed to analyze the shape and mechanical properties of single cells trans-mitosis. The CFA results showed that cells progressing through mitosis could increase their height against forces as high as 50 nN, and that higher forces can delay mitosis in HeLa cells. The CHA results showed that mitotic cells confined to ~50% of their normal height can generate forces around 50-100 nN without disturbing mitotic progression. Such forces represent intracellular pressures of at least 200 Pascals and cell surface tensions of around 10 nN/µm. Using the CHA to compare mitotic cell rounding with induced cell rounding, it was observed that the intracellular pressure of mitotic cells is at least 3-fold higher than rounded interphase cells. To investigate the molecular basis of the mechanical changes inherent in mitotic cell rounding, inhibitors and toxins were used to pharmacologically dissect the role of candidate cellular processes. These results implicated the actomyosin cortex and osmolyte transporters, the most prominent of which is the Na+/H+ exchanger, in the maintenance of mechanical properties and intracellular hydrostatic pressure. Observations on blebbing cells under the cantilever supported the idea that the actomyosin cortex is required to sustain hydrostatic pressure and direct this pressure into cell shape changes. To gain further insight into the relationship between actomyosin activity and intracellular pressure, dynamic perturbation experiments were conducted. To this end, the CHA was used to evaluate the pressure and volume of mitotic cells before, during and after dynamic perturbations that included tonic shocks, influx of specific inhibitors, and exposure to pore-forming toxins. When osmotic pressure gradients were depleted, pressure and volume decreased. When the actomyosin cytoskeleton was abolished, cell volume increased while rounding pressure decreased. Conversely, stimulation of actomyosin cortex contraction triggered an increase in rounding pressure and a decrease in volume. Taken together, the dynamic perturbation results demonstrated that the actomyosin cortex contracts against an opposing intracellular pressure and that this relationship sets the surface tension, pressure and volume of the cell. The discussion section of this thesis provides a comprehensive overview of the physical basis of MCR by amalgamating the experimental results of this thesis with the literature. Additionally, the biochemal signaling pathways and proteins that drive MCR are collated and discussed. An exhaustive and unprecedented synthesis of the literature on cell rounding (approx. 750 papers as pubmed search hits on “cell rounding”, April 2012) reveals that the spread-to-round transition can be thought of in terms of a surface tension versus adhesion paradigm, and that cell rounding can be physically classified into four main modes, of which one is an MCR-like category characterized by increased actomyosin cortex tension and diminution of focal adhesions. The biochemical pathways and signaling patterns that correspond with these four rounding modes are catalogued and expounded upon in the context of the relevant physiology. This analysis reveals cell rounding as a pertinent topic that can be leveraged to yield insight into core principles of cell biophysics and tissue organization. It furthermore highlights MCR as a model problem to understand the adhesion versus cell surface tension paradigm in cells and its fundamentality to cell shape, mechanics and physiology.

During mitosis, adherent animal cells undergo a drastic shape change, from essentially flat to round, in a process known as mitotic cell rounding (MCR). The aim of this thesis was to critically examine the physical and biological basis of MCR. The experimental part of this thesis employed a combined optical microscope-atomic force microscope (AFM) setup in conjunction with flat tipless cantilevers to analyze cell mechanics, shape and volume. To this end, two AFM assays were developed: the constant force assay (CFA), which applies constant force to cells and measures the resultant height, and the constant height assay (CHA), which confines cell height and measures the resultant force. These assays were deployed to analyze the shape and mechanical properties of single cells trans-mitosis. The CFA results showed that cells progressing through mitosis could increase their height against forces as high as 50 nN, and that higher forces can delay mitosis in HeLa cells. The CHA results showed that mitotic cells confined to ~50% of their normal height can generate forces around 50-100 nN without disturbing mitotic progression. Such forces represent intracellular pressures of at least 200 Pascals and cell surface tensions of around 10 nN/µm. Using the CHA to compare mitotic cell rounding with induced cell rounding, it was observed that the intracellular pressure of mitotic cells is at least 3-fold higher than rounded interphase cells. To investigate the molecular basis of the mechanical changes inherent in mitotic cell rounding, inhibitors and toxins were used to pharmacologically dissect the role of candidate cellular processes. These results implicated the actomyosin cortex and osmolyte transporters, the most prominent of which is the Na+/H+ exchanger, in the maintenance of mechanical properties and intracellular hydrostatic pressure. Observations on blebbing cells under the cantilever supported the idea that the actomyosin cortex is required to sustain hydrostatic pressure and direct this pressure into cell shape changes. To gain further insight into the relationship between actomyosin activity and intracellular pressure, dynamic perturbation experiments were conducted. To this end, the CHA was used to evaluate the pressure and volume of mitotic cells before, during and after dynamic perturbations that included tonic shocks, influx of specific inhibitors, and exposure to pore-forming toxins. When osmotic pressure gradients were depleted, pressure and volume decreased. When the actomyosin cytoskeleton was abolished, cell volume increased while rounding pressure decreased. Conversely, stimulation of actomyosin cortex contraction triggered an increase in rounding pressure and a decrease in volume. Taken together, the dynamic perturbation results demonstrated that the actomyosin cortex contracts against an opposing intracellular pressure and that this relationship sets the surface tension, pressure and volume of the cell. The discussion section of this thesis provides a comprehensive overview of the physical basis of MCR by amalgamating the experimental results of this thesis with the literature. Additionally, the biochemal signaling pathways and proteins that drive MCR are collated and discussed. An exhaustive and unprecedented synthesis of the literature on cell rounding (approx. 750 papers as pubmed search hits on “cell rounding”, April 2012) reveals that the spread-to-round transition can be thought of in terms of a surface tension versus adhesion paradigm, and that cell rounding can be physically classified into four main modes, of which one is an MCR-like category characterized by increased actomyosin cortex tension and diminution of focal adhesions. The biochemical pathways and signaling patterns that correspond with these four rounding modes are catalogued and expounded upon in the context of the relevant physiology. This analysis reveals cell rounding as a pertinent topic that can be leveraged to yield insight into core principles of cell biophysics and tissue organization. It furthermore highlights MCR as a model problem to understand the adhesion versus cell surface tension paradigm in cells and its fundamentality to cell shape, mechanics and physiology.