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No description available.

During cellular differentiation, gene expression is globally regulated through changes in the epigenome. How a single genome can give rise to a diversity of cell and tissue types remains a complex area of investigation, and here we sought to explore the molecular regulation of gene expression during the differentiation of skeletal muscle cells from committed myogenic progenitors. Using a systematic and integrated analysis of global transcriptional and epigenetic data, we characterized the regulation of gene expression in differentiating myoblasts and found that muscle-specific gene expression is regulated through differential activation of tissue-specific regulatory DNA elements by the myogenic transcription factor MyoD. In addition, the genome-wide localization of MyoD, and the mechanisms underlying its function in transcriptional regulation, varies between myogenic progenitors and differentiating myoblasts. Our study explores the recruitment and function of MyoD at regulatory elements of target genes and additionally describes a novel role for ligand-inducible signaling in the regulation of MyoD function and ultimately in myogenic differentiation.

No description available.

Sim2s is a basic helix-loop-helix Per-Arnt-Sim (bHLH-PAS) transcription factor. In Drosophila, the Sim2 homolog, sim, is necessary for cell fate determination during central nervous system (CNS) development. In mammals, both Sim2 isoforms are involved in development of various tissues, including muscle, cartilage, and mammary gland. Loss-of-function studies revealed a role for Sim2s in specifying epithelial cell fate during mammary development and inhibiting growth and invasion of aggressive breast cancer cells. This study determined the role of Sim2s in mammary epithelial cell differentiation. Our hypothesis is that Sim2s is sufficient to promote lactogenic differentiation in vivo, characterized by expression of lactation-specific genes. Two models were used to test this hypothesis: (1) a transgenic mouse, expressing Sim2s under control of the MMTV-LTR, and (2) the mouse mammary epithelial cell line HC11. Together, these models allow analysis of the effect of Sim2s on global mammary gland differentiation and the mechanism through which it accomplishes this in a relatively homogenous population of cells. We determined that precocious expression of Sim2s in vivo is associated with upregulation of a subset of milk protein genes in nulliparous females. During early pregnancy, Sim2s regulation of lactogenic differentiation extended to a larger group of genes. Following pup removal, Sim2s appears to promote survival of alveolar epithelial cells. In vitro, Sim2s expression is necessary for maximal Csn2 expression, as determined by loss-of-function studies. Overexpression of Sim2s is sufficient to enhance prolactin-mediated Csn2 expression. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays performed in HC11 cells revealed enhanced recruitment of Stat5a and RNA Polymerase II (RNAPII) to the regulatory region of Csn2 in the presence of Sim2s. In addition, Sim2s and RNAPII were found in a complex that was localized to both the promoter and coding region of the Csn2 gene. These studies support the idea that Sim2s is upregulated in a developmental stage-specific manner in the mouse mammary gland to promote the survival and differentiation of alveolar epithelial cells expressing high levels of milk protein genes. Further, Sim2s may regulate the function of a specific subset of alveolar cells by targeting the RNAPII holoenzyme complex to genes expressed during lactogenic differentiation.

Sim2s is a basic helix-loop-helix Per-Arnt-Sim (bHLH-PAS) transcription factor. In Drosophila, the Sim2 homolog, sim, is necessary for cell fate determination during central nervous system (CNS) development. In mammals, both Sim2 isoforms are involved in development of various tissues, including muscle, cartilage, and mammary gland. Loss-of-function studies revealed a role for Sim2s in specifying epithelial cell fate during mammary development and inhibiting growth and invasion of aggressive breast cancer cells. This study determined the role of Sim2s in mammary epithelial cell differentiation. Our hypothesis is that Sim2s is sufficient to promote lactogenic differentiation in vivo, characterized by expression of lactation-specific genes. Two models were used to test this hypothesis: (1) a transgenic mouse, expressing Sim2s under control of the MMTV-LTR, and (2) the mouse mammary epithelial cell line HC11. Together, these models allow analysis of the effect of Sim2s on global mammary gland differentiation and the mechanism through which it accomplishes this in a relatively homogenous population of cells. We determined that precocious expression of Sim2s in vivo is associated with upregulation of a subset of milk protein genes in nulliparous females. During early pregnancy, Sim2s regulation of lactogenic differentiation extended to a larger group of genes. Following pup removal, Sim2s appears to promote survival of alveolar epithelial cells. In vitro, Sim2s expression is necessary for maximal Csn2 expression, as determined by loss-of-function studies. Overexpression of Sim2s is sufficient to enhance prolactin-mediated Csn2 expression. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays performed in HC11 cells revealed enhanced recruitment of Stat5a and RNA Polymerase II (RNAPII) to the regulatory region of Csn2 in the presence of Sim2s. In addition, Sim2s and RNAPII were found in a complex that was localized to both the promoter and coding region of the Csn2 gene. These studies support the idea that Sim2s is upregulated in a developmental stage-specific manner in the mouse mammary gland to promote the survival and differentiation of alveolar epithelial cells expressing high levels of milk protein genes. Further, Sim2s may regulate the function of a specific subset of alveolar cells by targeting the RNAPII holoenzyme complex to genes expressed during lactogenic differentiation.

Systems biology takes a holistic approach to biological questions as it applies mathematical modeling to link and understand the interaction of components in complex biological systems. Multiscale modeling is the only method that can fully accomplish this aim. Mutliscale models consider processes at different levels that are coupled within the modeling framework. A first requirement in creating such models is a clear understanding of processes that operate at each level. This research focuses on modeling aspects of biological development as a complex process that occurs at many scales. Two of these scales were considered in this work: cellular differentiation, the process of in which less specialized cells acquired specialized properties of mature cell types, and morphogenesis, the process in which an organism develops its shape and tissue architecture. In development, cellular differentiation typically is required for morphogenesis. Therefore, cellular differentiation is at a lower scale than morphogenesis in the overall process of development. In this work, cellular differentiation and morphogenesis were modeled in a variety of biological contexts, with the ultimate goal of linking these different scales of developmental events into a unified model of development. Three aspects of cellular differentiation were investigated, all united by the theme of how the dynamics of gene regulatory networks (GRNs) control differentiation. Two of the projects of this dissertation studied the effect of noise and robustness in switching between cell types during differentiation, and a third deals with the evaluation of hypothetical GRNs that allow the differentiation of specific cell types. All these projects view cell types as highdimensional attractors in the GRNs and use random Boolean networks as the modeling framework for studying network dynamics. Morphogenesis was studied using the emergence of three-dimensional structures in biofilms as a relatively simple model. Many strains of bacteria form complex structures during growth as colonies on a solid medium. The morphogenesis of these structures was modeled using an agent-based framework and the outcomes were validated using structures of biofilm colonies reported in the literature.

Cerebral cortex development is a complex process that integrates both extrinsic and intrinsic mechanisms. The surrounding cellular environment triggers receptor activation, which in turn initiates components of different signalling cascades and subsequently gene transcription, influencing cell survival, proliferation, and differentiation. Genetic mutations causing a loss-of-function or gain-of-function of signalling pathways elements can lead to cortical abnormalities and result in cognitive dysfunctions. In this thesis, I examined the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) TrkB and TrkC, the small GTPase Ras, and the C/EBP family of transcription factors, investigating their roles during cerebral cortex development. First, I looked at the role of C/EBPs during cortical cell fate determination. I determined that inhibition of C/EBPs decrease neurogenesis, keeping precursors in an undifferentiated state and later promoting their differentiation into astrocytes, while expression of an activated form of C/EBP promoted neurogenesis and reduced astrogenesis. Moreover, the inhibition of MEK, a mediator of C/EBPβ phosphorylation, also caused a decrease in neurogenesis. Thus, activation of the MEK-C/EBP pathway biases precursor cells to become neurons rather than astrocytes, thereby acting as a differentiation switch. Second, I examined the involvement of Trk signalling during cortical development. I showed that genetic knockdown using shRNA, or inhibition using dominant negative of TrkB and TrkC lead to a decrease in proliferation and later to postnatal precursor cells depletion. Moreover, it caused a reduction in number of neurons combined with mislocalization of the generated neurons to the different cortical layers. Thus, Trk signalling plays an essential role in the regulation of cortical precursor cell proliferation and differentiation during embryonic development. Third, I elucidated the effect of Costello syndrome H-Ras mutations during cerebral cortex formation. I determined that these mutations promoted cell proliferation and astrogenesis, while reducing neurogenesis. Together, these data support a model where proper Trks/Ras/MEK/C/EBP signalling is essential for normal genesis of neurons and astrocytes and show that cortical development perturbations can ultimately lead to cognitive dysfunction as seen in Costello syndrome patients.

Cerebral cortex development is a complex process that integrates both extrinsic and intrinsic mechanisms. The surrounding cellular environment triggers receptor activation, which in turn initiates components of different signalling cascades and subsequently gene transcription, influencing cell survival, proliferation, and differentiation. Genetic mutations causing a loss-of-function or gain-of-function of signalling pathways elements can lead to cortical abnormalities and result in cognitive dysfunctions. In this thesis, I examined the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) TrkB and TrkC, the small GTPase Ras, and the C/EBP family of transcription factors, investigating their roles during cerebral cortex development. First, I looked at the role of C/EBPs during cortical cell fate determination. I determined that inhibition of C/EBPs decrease neurogenesis, keeping precursors in an undifferentiated state and later promoting their differentiation into astrocytes, while expression of an activated form of C/EBP promoted neurogenesis and reduced astrogenesis. Moreover, the inhibition of MEK, a mediator of C/EBPβ phosphorylation, also caused a decrease in neurogenesis. Thus, activation of the MEK-C/EBP pathway biases precursor cells to become neurons rather than astrocytes, thereby acting as a differentiation switch. Second, I examined the involvement of Trk signalling during cortical development. I showed that genetic knockdown using shRNA, or inhibition using dominant negative of TrkB and TrkC lead to a decrease in proliferation and later to postnatal precursor cells depletion. Moreover, it caused a reduction in number of neurons combined with mislocalization of the generated neurons to the different cortical layers. Thus, Trk signalling plays an essential role in the regulation of cortical precursor cell proliferation and differentiation during embryonic development. Third, I elucidated the effect of Costello syndrome H-Ras mutations during cerebral cortex formation. I determined that these mutations promoted cell proliferation and astrogenesis, while reducing neurogenesis. Together, these data support a model where proper Trks/Ras/MEK/C/EBP signalling is essential for normal genesis of neurons and astrocytes and show that cortical development perturbations can ultimately lead to cognitive dysfunction as seen in Costello syndrome patients.

Os receptores purinérgicos são divididos em receptores P1 e P2 de acordo com o seu agonista endógeno, os receptores metabotrópicos P1 são ativados por adenosina, enquanto os metabotrópicos P2Y e ionotrópicos P2X são estimulados através do ATP e outros nucleotídeos. Além de sua função bem estabelecida na neurotransmissão, a sinalização purinérgica tem despertado crescente interesse científico devido à sua importância nas funções no metabolismo celular, incluindo os processos de desenvolvimento embrionário e reparação de tecidos. Isso ocorre especialmente no sistema nervoso central, onde eles controlam a proliferação, diferenciação, apoptose e a liberação de fatores neurotróficos. Nesse trabalho nós focamos nas ações sinérgicas entre a sinalização purinérgica e o fator de crescimento de nervos (NGF), tendo em vista três formas conhecidas de interação entre o NGF e os receptores purinérgicos, a potencialização dos efeitos do NGF através de uma ligação cruzada entre as vias, a regulação da expressão dos receptores purinérgicos pelo NGF e regulação da liberação de NGF pela adenosina. Com o objetivo de investigar estes processos sinérgicos na regulação da proliferação, migração e determinação fenotípica, células precursoras neurais foram obtidas do telencéfalo de embriões de rato e cultivadas na forma de neuroesferas, sendo então submetidas a tratamentos com agonistas e antagonistas dos receptores purinérgicos, em associação com o NGF, ao longo da diferenciação. Os efeitos desses tratamentos foram analisados por citometria de fluxo. Nós mostramos que o NGF age sobre as células aumentando a proliferação, migração e população de células indiferenciadas e diminuindo a apoptose. A ativação dos receptores P1 levou à diminuição da gliogênese e ao aumento da proliferação e da migração. A estimulação de receptores P2 resultou em aumento da proliferação e redução da taxa de apoptose. Os receptores purinérgicos potenciaram a proliferação mediada por NGF, resultando assim num aumento da população de células indiferenciadas. Neste último efeito percebemos a participação do receptor P2Y2 na sinergia. Os resultados aqui apresentados revelam novos mecanismos para a interação entre o NGF e a sinalização purinérgica na biologia de células tronco neurais / Purinergic receptors are divided into P1 and P2 receptors according to agonist selectivity, G-protein- coupled P1 receptors are activated by adenosine, while metabotropic P2Y and ionotropic P2X subtypes are stimulated by ATP and other nucleotides. In addition to its well-established function in neurotransmission, purinergic signaling has raised increasing scientific interest due to its importance in essential cellular functions and metabolism including embryonic developmental processes and tissue repair, specially in the central nervous system, where they control proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis and the release of neurotrophic factors. Here we focus on synergistic actions between purinergic P1 and P2 receptor-mediated signaling and the nerve growth factor (NGF), in view of three recognized forms of interaction between NGF and purinergic signaling, the potencialization of NGF-mediated effects through a crosstalk, the regulation of purinergic receptor expression by NGF and the regulation of NGF release by adenosine. With the objective to investigate such synergistic processes in regulating proliferation, neural migration and phenotype determination, neurospheres obtained as proliferating neural stem and progenitor from rat embryonic telencephalon were subjected to treatments with purinergic receptor agonists and antagonists in association with NGF along differentiation. Effects of these treatments were analyzed by flow cytometry. We show that NGF acted on cells by increasing the population of undifferentiated cells, proliferation, migration and reducing apoptosis. P1 receptor activation led to decreased gliogenesis, increased proliferation and migration. Stimulation of P2 receptors resulted in increased proliferation and decreased apoptosis rates. Purinergic receptors potentiated NGF-mediated proliferation, thereby resulting in increased population of undifferentiated cells, in this latter effect, the P2Y2 receptor subtype participated in synergistic processes. The herein presented results reveal novel mechanisms for the interaction of NGF and purinergic signaling in neural stem cell biology