The process of psychological change is complex, mirroring the complexity of life (Mahoney, 1991). Such complexity is nonlinear. Essentially, people are nonlinear dynamical systems and are characterised by an ever-changing, ever-adaptive movement from one state of order to another. This movement is a sequential flux, a turbulent ebb and flow of forces and form. Psychological change, too, follows this chaotic process of change (Butz, 1997). This is in line with the ‘new science’ of complexity. A postmodern vision, this is an ecological worldview that sees the world in terms of wholeness, interconnectedness, context, and nonlinear process (Goerner, 1995a). Three fields characterised by and concerned with complexity and which embrace the postmodern, ecological worldview are constructivism, ecopsychology, and chaos theory. Constructivism holds that people are meaning-making individuals who construct their own versions of reality; people are proactive, self-organising, and ever adapting to higher levels of complexity (Masterpasqua & Perna, 1997; Neimeyer & Mahoney, 1995). Ecopsychology is a synthesis of psychology and ecology; it is inspired by a holistic version of reality and posits the mutual embeddedness of humans and nature, the systemic connectedness of all that exists, and the evolutionary flux of the universe (Goerner, 1995a; Metzner, 1999). Chaos theory is the face of complexity; it is concerned with nonlinear dynamic systems as they evolve over time and the patterns and processes underlying such change (Cambel, 1993; Kellert, 1993). Although individually powerful and relevant for psychology, these fields are highly fragmented and often impractical. Much potential lies in their integration. Against this background, two goals were pursued in this study: 1) primarily, to simply and clearly demonstrate the concepts and application of chaos theory in a therapeutic situation; 2) to integrate the fields of constructivism, ecopsychology, and chaos theory relevant to the main goal of the study. Constructivism served as a grounding epistemology and, within this, ecopsychology served as a context within which chaos theory was utilised as a therapeutic applicatory model. The grounding epistemology, integration, and intervention are premised on the notions that: a) nature and humans are mutually and crucially embedded in each other; b) nature is characterised by nonlinear dynamical systems and the chaotic process of change, and thus humans (ie: dynamical systems) are also necessarily subject to such natural laws and principles; c) humans are proactive and may utilise the principles of chaos theory – notably self-organisation – to consciously initiate their own chaotic process of psychological change. The fields of constructivism, ecopsychology, and chaos theory are characterised by new and innovative forms of research and design methods. Such a pioneering spirit underpinned this study. The emphasis was on simplicity and pragmatic utility, using down-to-earth methods geared to producing practical and relevant data for use in therapy. A prime consideration was to ground the study in real-life. An empirical, descriptive field study was thus used, utilising an intensive single-case quantitative (time-series) design for data collection and a qualitative analysis. The intervention was aimed at initiating and facilitating psychological change, and was conducted with three participants. A nature-based metaphor and related guided imagery were used as a structure for the intervention. The intervention was conducted over three months. Participants completed self-report scales four times daily for the duration of the intervention, yielding time-series data. Analysis was by means of interpretation of three-dimensional geometric phase portraits and time-series graphs. Interpretations were used heuristically, triangulating them with clinical observations and verbal feedback from participants. Results showed that each of the three participants changed psychologically in different ways in the intervention, with certain aspects of chaos theory more applicable to one or the other. Considered together, the data pertaining to the three participants were clearly related to the principles of chaotic change. It was concluded that the concepts of chaos theory were shown to be relevant for therapy and that their application could be demonstrated simply and clearly. Chaos theory holds much potential as an applicatory model in psychology and would be well served by the use of more simple and pragmatic research methods. The use of triangulation in chaos theory analysis was found to be a particularly powerful methodology. The integration of constructivism, ecopsychology, and chaos theory proved to be a powerful framework for therapy and holds much potential for future development as a framework for broader psychological investigation and application. Much future research could be pursued from where this study leaves off. More studies focusing on simple and clear applications of chaos theory in therapy could be undertaken. Practical studies conducted in real-life therapeutic situations using innovative methodology would be particularly useful. A more comprehensive integration of constructivism, ecopsychology, and chaos theory could be undertaken. This could be a rich synthesis, going beyond unification of the core fundamentals to consider more widely related aspects of therapy and psychology. / Professor Gertie Pretorius

The general purpose of this study was to examine transformations of human agency in natural contexts. Existing theoretical formulations have primarily been confined to laboratory investigations. Moreover, the principles generated by such theories have not been validated beyond the laboratory setting. With this purpose in mind, there were two immediate aims of the study. The first aim was to contribute to counselling theory by assessing five prominent theories of human agency and providing a basis from which to potentially establish more adequate theoretical formulations. The second aim was to contribute to counselling practice by providing concrete information and a more informed basis through which to enhance agency in clients. A multiple case study design integrating intensive interviewing and Q-methodology was utilized for the study. Ten individuals, five women and five men, ranging in age from 28 to 64, were identified through a network of contacts for participation in the study. Based upon convergence of qualitative evidence from interviews and quantitative evidence from Q-sorts, rich, detailed narrative accounts of transformation were constructed for each individual. Each account was validated by the individual for whom each was written and by an independent reviewer. Through a comparative analysis of the ten diverse accounts of transformation, extensive commonality was identified. Twenty-two common themes were extracted from the accounts that portrayed significant features of the transformation. Based on these themes, an abstract story of the common pattern revealed in the transformation was plotted. Individual aspects of each of the theories of agency were validated as well as qualified in some important ways. In addition, the results extended these theories in three main ways. First, the results indicated that transformations of human agency were complex wholes that involved a configuration of features rather than any one or two isolated features. Second, the findings indicated that context played a critical role in transformations of agency. And third, the results emphasized the important role of powerful emotions in the process of transformation. The results of this study also generated a beginning holistic portrait of transformation which has implications for counsellors in terms of understanding and facilitating transformations of agency in clients. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate

This study examined the effectiveness of information about, and/or practice with, visualization in increasing: self-understanding, belief in one's ability to effect self change, positive themes in ongoing imagery, and internality of locus of control. A sample of 19 women and 11 men, ranging in age from 18 to 50 years, were divided into four groups which each received different amounts of information about, or practice with, visualization. All groups were tested before and after treatment on four measures, and the three experimental groups also completed a posttest-only measure. The measures used were the Personal Response Questionnaire (developed by the author), subscales from the Imaginal Processes Inventory, the Spheres of Control test, the Questionnaire on Imagery Control, and the Questionnaire Upon Mental Imagery. Results indicated that members of the experimental groups believed that visualization could contribute significantly to self-understanding, felt differently about themselves as a result of learning about visualization, felt it would be useful for personal development, and felt they would use it in their own future self-development. Vividness of imagery increased from pretest to posttest for those groups with most information about, and practice with, visualization. Increased internality on the sociopolitical control subscale of the Spheres of Control test was also found for all groups on the posttest. None of the other predicted effects were found to have occurred at a significant level. The failure to achieve the anticipated results was attributed partially to the short period of training and practice allocated, to the small number of subjects, and also to the lack of appropriate and sufficiently sensitive assessment measures. / Arts, Faculty of / Psychology, Department of / Graduate

Women with anorexia nervosa tend to be ambivalent about change and resistant to treatment. A growing number of researchers suggest that this ambivalence must be targeted early on, before attempting to engage clients in action-oriented treatment that focuses on immediate symptom reduction. However, in order to appropriately address client ambivalence, it must be accurately evaluated with empirically validated instruments. The purpose of this thesis was to develop and validate a Decisional Balance (DB) measure of readiness for change in anorexia nervosa. In Study 1, 246 women with anorexia nervosa completed the DB, and a subset completed the DB again one week later. Unlike traditional decisional balance measures that have two factor (pro-con) solutions, factor analytic techniques indicated that a three factor solution provided the best fit for the DB data in this study. These factors included general negative consequences of the disorder (Burdens), valued achievements such as self-control, being very thin, and striving for perfection (Benefits), and using anorexia nervosa as a means for avoiding aversive emotions, challenges, and responsibilities (Avoidance Coping). The DB demonstrated good internal consistency and test-retest stability. In study 2, 80 women with anorexia nervosa completed the DB, along with other measures of readiness for change, as well as measures unrelated to readiness. Support was found for both convergent and divergent validity. Finally, in study 3, 80 women with anorexia nervosa completed the DB, and a measure of anticipated difficulty completing symptom-challenging recovery activities. In addition, participants attempted to complete three recovery activities in the week following initial assessment. Criterion validity was not well supported, most likely because the concurrent and predictive validity measures focused on behavior change, when non-behavioral measures may have been more appropriate. Overall, the results suggest that the DB for anorexia nervosa is a measure of awareness or insight about the functions of this disorder. The theoretical and clinical implications of this research are reviewed and directions for future investigations are proposed. / Arts, Faculty of / Psychology, Department of / Graduate

In response to climate change, there is a growing need for the UK to reduce carbon emissions in the domestic sector. As a majority of energy consumed within the domestic sector is as a result of space and water heating, research in the field focuses on thermal comfort. The literature on thermal comfort is dominated by an examination of the physiological aspects, and although the influences of psychological and socio-cultural aspects are often recognised, their relationship to the physiological aspects is not fully understood. Additionally, the literature typically studies various elements of comfort (e.g. thermal, acoustic, lighting, etc.) in isolation to each other rather than taking a holistic approach which would mirror how they are experienced in the real world and identify potential associations. As a result, this thesis explores the multi-dimensions of comfort in the domestic environment. This research begins by taking a user-centred approach to exploring UK householders perspectives of comfort in the home. Through interviewing householders, the findings revealed householders attributed a wide scope of factors to their own experience of comfort, from aesthetics to feeling secure in their home; the findings highlighted the significance of psychological factors to householders comfort. The following stage involved a focused and in-depth exploration of the psychological dimensions of domestic comfort through photo elicitation interviews. The findings supported the presence of four intertwined psychological dimensions and further established the multidimensional nature of comfort. The final study was conducted to establish when comfort and unwinding takes place in householders everyday lives. Through the use of two self-reporting ethnographic tools, namely SenseCams and diaries, householders were observed in their homes. The findings captured householders engaging in various comfort making activities and also demonstrated the value of using self-reporting tools in the home context. In the final stage, a classification of domestic comfort was generated which presents an accumulation of the findings from this research to produce a holistic and multi-dimensional notion of domestic comfort.

Many historically disadvantaged South Africans are entering into universities, where they are expected to perform academically not only to secure themselves a continued place at university, but also to secure themselves a place in the competitive job-market post university. Not only have these individuals been disadvantaged by an inferior schooling system, which is the legacy of apartheid, but they also struggle against the grasp of poverty, attempting to sustain themselves financially in order to afford the necessities for their survival, while still attempting to cope academically. Resilience has been presented as a process that helps individuals deal effectively with stressful events and adverse conditions. An attempt is therefore made to investigate whether resilience plays this role in the experience of disadvantaged students at university, where academic performance and adjustment represent the expected measures of coping. The aim of the study was therefore to explore the role of resilience constructs in the relationship between socio-economic and demographic variables and academic coping. The study is based within the broad framework of Psychofortology, which is the science of psychological strengths. The resilience constructs used included fortitude (measured by the Fortitude Questionnaire), hardiness (measured by the Personal Views Survey) and sense of coherence (measured by the Sense of Coherence Scale). Demographic variables included age, sex, language, town (urban/rural), with household income as an indicator of socio-economic status. Academic coping (outcome) was measured using students&rsquo / academic performance (average grade) and their adjustment to university (measured by the Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire). Participants included 164 third year Psychology students from the University of the Western Cape. Results indicate statistically significant relationships between various demographic and resilience variables / between various demographic and outcome variables / and between various resilience and outcome variables. Resilience variables were also found to play a role in the relationship between demographic and outcome variables, as various resilience variables emerged as significant predictors of outcome variables, or as having either direct, moderating, mediating or indirect effects on the relationship between demographic and outcome variables. Research suggesting the health-sustaining and stress-reducing (buffering) roles of resilience constructs, as well resilience constructs as influencing the perceptions of adverse conditions or stressors is therefore supported by these findings. Limitations of the study were also discussed, as well as recommendations for future research put forward.

O presente trabalho de modificação de comportamento, foi realizado em um pavilhão de crianças de um hospital psiquiátrico do Estado. Fez-se um levantamento das condições do pavilhão das crianças para identificar as dificuldades existentes e planejou-se juntamente com a equipe técnica do pavilhão mudanças no ambiente físico que propiciavam condições para produzir modificações no comportamento das crianças e das atendentes. A rotina diária do pavilhão se centralizava em torno de duas atividades principais: situação de banho e situação de refeições. A programação de mudanças ambientais foi feita de modo a atingir especificamente cada uma dessas situações bem como os períodos intermediários entre as mesmas. Os resultados mostraram que com a implantação das mudanças ambientais realizadas no pavilhão das crianças foi observada uma acentuada melhora no repertório comportamental das crianças e no padrão comportamental das atendentes. Essas mudanças se mantiveram após a nossa saída da instituição. / The present work of behavior modification was accomplished in a ward of children in a state psychiatric hospital. It was an evaluation of the condition of the children´s ward to identify the difficulties and together with the staff of the ward, there was planned some changes in the physical environment so that favorable conditions would produce modification in the behavior of the children and the attendants. The daily routine of the ward consisted of two main activities: situation of the bath and situation of the meals. The programming of those changes was planned in a way to effect especially each one of these situations and their intermediate periods as well. The situations were reorganized by using the physical and human resources of the place. The results showed that with the environmental changes set up in the children\'s ward there was observed a strong improvement in the behavior repertory of children and in the pattern of behavior of the attendants. Those changes continued after the period which we left the hospital.

O presente trabalho de modificação de comportamento, foi realizado em um pavilhão de crianças de um hospital psiquiátrico do Estado. Fez-se um levantamento das condições do pavilhão das crianças para identificar as dificuldades existentes e planejou-se juntamente com a equipe técnica do pavilhão mudanças no ambiente físico que propiciavam condições para produzir modificações no comportamento das crianças e das atendentes. A rotina diária do pavilhão se centralizava em torno de duas atividades principais: situação de banho e situação de refeições. A programação de mudanças ambientais foi feita de modo a atingir especificamente cada uma dessas situações bem como os períodos intermediários entre as mesmas. Os resultados mostraram que com a implantação das mudanças ambientais realizadas no pavilhão das crianças foi observada uma acentuada melhora no repertório comportamental das crianças e no padrão comportamental das atendentes. Essas mudanças se mantiveram após a nossa saída da instituição. / The present work of behavior modification was accomplished in a ward of children in a state psychiatric hospital. It was an evaluation of the condition of the children´s ward to identify the difficulties and together with the staff of the ward, there was planned some changes in the physical environment so that favorable conditions would produce modification in the behavior of the children and the attendants. The daily routine of the ward consisted of two main activities: situation of the bath and situation of the meals. The programming of those changes was planned in a way to effect especially each one of these situations and their intermediate periods as well. The situations were reorganized by using the physical and human resources of the place. The results showed that with the environmental changes set up in the children\'s ward there was observed a strong improvement in the behavior repertory of children and in the pattern of behavior of the attendants. Those changes continued after the period which we left the hospital.

This study investigated the subjectively constructed narratives of individual change for lead persons in a Therapeutic Enactment (Westwood, Keats & Wilensky, in press). Narrative investigation of Therapeutic Enactment to date has not been conducted and, as such, the study is important to the field of counselling psychology and the further development of Therapeutic Enactment. In terms of both theory and practice the study expands our understanding of the complexities of the change process in Therapeutic Enactment. It also provides the unique personal contexts related to change and it provides concrete examples of what actually changes in the lives of lead persons in Therapeutic Enactment. In this study, the co-researchers consisted of 4 female lead persons and 2 male lead persons, who had taken part in their own Therapeutic Enactment at a residential retreat on the outskirts of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The co-researchers were interviewed in-depth using person-centred narrative interviewing techniques, combined with semi-structured interview questions. Five narratives were written in the first person focusing on the subjective experience of individual change in Therapeutic Enactment. Each narrative was returned to the respective co-researcher for editing and validation at which point co-researchers removed portions of the narratives they did not want included in the study and then added or amended content that they did want to be included in the study. The principal researcher made the requested changes and then returned final copies of the narratives to each of the co-researchers. The final narratives are presented herein. The co-constructed narratives indicate that lead persons in Therapeutic Enactment experienced change on six general levels including body sensations, emotions, behaviours, thoughts, relationships and spiritual connection. This study provides an in-depth examination of the subjective narratives of individual change in Therapeutic Enactment.

Many historically disadvantaged South Africans are entering into universities, where they are expected to perform academically not only to secure themselves a continued place at university, but also to secure themselves a place in the competitive job-market post university. Not only have these individuals been disadvantaged by an inferior schooling system, which is the legacy of apartheid, but they also struggle against the grasp of poverty, attempting to sustain themselves financially in order to afford the necessities for their survival, while still attempting to cope academically. Resilience has been presented as a process that helps individuals deal effectively with stressful events and adverse conditions. An attempt is therefore made to investigate whether resilience plays this role in the experience of disadvantaged students at university, where academic performance and adjustment represent the expected measures of coping. The aim of the study was therefore to explore the role of resilience constructs in the relationship between socio-economic and demographic variables and academic coping. The study is based within the broad framework of Psychofortology, which is the science of psychological strengths. The resilience constructs used included fortitude (measured by the Fortitude Questionnaire), hardiness (measured by the Personal Views Survey) and sense of coherence (measured by the Sense of Coherence Scale). Demographic variables included age, sex, language, town (urban/rural), with household income as an indicator of socio-economic status. Academic coping (outcome) was measured using students&rsquo / academic performance (average grade) and their adjustment to university (measured by the Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire). Participants included 164 third year Psychology students from the University of the Western Cape. Results indicate statistically significant relationships between various demographic and resilience variables / between various demographic and outcome variables / and between various resilience and outcome variables. Resilience variables were also found to play a role in the relationship between demographic and outcome variables, as various resilience variables emerged as significant predictors of outcome variables, or as having either direct, moderating, mediating or indirect effects on the relationship between demographic and outcome variables. Research suggesting the health-sustaining and stress-reducing (buffering) roles of resilience constructs, as well resilience constructs as influencing the perceptions of adverse conditions or stressors is therefore supported by these findings. Limitations of the study were also discussed, as well as recommendations for future research put forward.