Economic impossibility to perform Change of circumstances in new Czech civil code The topic of this thesis is the institute of economic impossibility to perform, or respectively change of circumstances. This institute of civil law is a part of new Czech civil code. This code shall be in effect on 1st January 2014. Similar institute has not been codified in our legal systém before. The economic impossibility is an institute focused on dynamics of surrounding circumstances of a concluded agreement. It solves exceptional cases in which unexpected events occur that adversely affect the functioning or equitable balance of the agreement. The uncodified nature of the institute does not mean that the cases were not solved before. Actually on contrary. After the 1st and the 2nd World War, especially after the first one, the czechoslovakian courts had to decide many cases related to this matter. In the first chapter of this thesis I have defined economic impossibility and related terms. After that I have shortly presented a history of institute of commercial impossibility and in chapter three I have focused intensively on a doctrine of the Czech first republic (1918 - 1938). In chapter four I have surveyed "old", still effective, civil code in a light of new Supreme court's decision. In chapter five I have summed up...

1. Summary The Influence of a Change of Circumstances on the Existence of an Obligation The purpose of my thesis is to present a brief outline of the problems concerning the impact of the change of circumstances on the existence of an obligation. The leading principle looking into this issue is the rebus sic stantibus principle. This principle can be considered as the opposite of the contemporary major contract rule worshipped by most of the European states and thus legal systems, the pacta sunt servanda principle. This principle, meaning the necessity of putting emphasis on the performance, is at present the fundamental principle of contract law of the Czech republic too. However, day-to-day life creates situations, in which the strict compliance with this principle can be in conradiction with justice and the contractor's expectations of the fairness of the law. The rebus sic stantibus principle is presently applied usually only to rare specific cases, the question, whether it should be allowed to terminate the contract under a essential change of the circumstances to all contracts in general, is an object of long-term discussions among many legal experts and legislators. This thesis is composed of five chapters, each of them dealing with different aspects of the essentialy changed circumstances (also...

Change of circumstances and its effect on a duration of an obligation In particular cases, an unexpected supervening event may substantially affect original equilibrium of a contract, or make the performance for one of the parties much more burdensome, so that it would be greatly unjust to hold the parties to their obligations. In such situations, when the performance of one of the parties has become much more onerous, a conflict may rise between the classical principles of contractual freedom, sanctity of the contract, certainty of the law and pacta sunt servanda, on the one hand, and principle of contractual fairness, equity and good faith on the other. Pacta sunt servanda, principle accepted by most of developed legal systems, determines that obligations which are validly concluded, must be fulfilled, parties are bound by their agreement. In case of change of circumstances, this may lead to situations, when it would be unjust to hold the debtor to the obligation. This makes the topic of the thesis very controversial and polemic. The topic of this thesis is a change of circumstances and its impact on an existing obligation. The aim of the thesis is to focus and describe relevant legal doctrines, institutes, and possible solutions of the problem. Another purpose is to analyze different legislations and...

Pacta sunt servanda.Il fut un temps, où la règle qui dominait le champ contractuel était, «Conventio omnis intelligitur rebus sic stantibus». Selon cette maxime, les dispositions d'un contrat ne restaient applicables que si les circonstances essentielles ayant justifié sa conclusion demeuraient en l'état. Désormais, selon l’article 1103 du Code civil, les contrats légalement formés tiennent lieu de loi à ceux qui les ont faits («pacta sunt servanda»). Ce principe est à double tranchant puisqu’il s’applique à la fois aux parties et aux juges, notamment lorsqu’un changement de circonstances s’opère comme dans le cas de l’imprévision. Celle-ci est un changement imprévu dans l’équilibre contractuel rendant l’exécution du contrat beaucoup plus onéreuse que ce qui était initialement prévu. Son corollaire américain pourrait être trouvé dans la notion d’impracticability. Celle-ci permet à un contrat d’être déchargé de ses obligations si, suite à sa conclusion, un événement imprévisible survient et rend son exécution impossible, ou beaucoup plus onéreuse que ce qui avait été prévu. Quel est l’effet, aujourd’hui, d’un changement de circonstances sur la force obligatoire du contrat en droit français et en droits internationaux? Le discours de la méthode.Le droit comparé aide à l’évolution juridique. Il est important, de comprendre la vision d’autres systèmes, afin de conforter ou, au contraire, d’infirmer une opinion sur son droit national. Pour Édouard Lambert, comparatiste français, cela permet d’obtenir des solutions plus justes. Mais surtout, cela permet d’avoir une approche critique de son propre droit et de s’ouvrir à d’autres réponses juridiques. Cela est particulièrement vrai concernant l’imprévision qui, pendant longtemps, a été rejetée par le système juridique français.Le système de la common law, quant à lui, l’avait déjà intégré. Le sujet de l’imprévision est particulièrement intéressant du fait de son histoire.Celui-ci n’a jamais cessé de faire controverse, et ce, même après l’adoption de l’ordonnance du 10 février 2016. La difficulté ici sera de départir de son ethnocentrisme juridique, et de ne pas tomber dans le piège de la traduction. Il faudra prendre garde à ne pas chercher l’équivalent absolu de l’imprévision dans la notion d’impracticability.Dans cette étude, nous avons passé en revue les circonstances changeantes dans les contrats commerciaux internationaux. Nous avons examiné les lois internationales, en particulier dans certains pays du Printemps arabe. Nous avons essayé d'analyser le problème juridique et de trouver des solutions. / Pacta sunt servanda, is a basic principle of civil law, canon law, and international law, in its most common sense, the principle refers to private contracts, stressing that contained clauses are law between the parties, and implies that no fulfillment of respective obligations is a breach of the pact.This principle is double-edged since it applies to both parties and judges, particularly when a change of circumstances occurs as in the case of unforeseen circumstances.This is an unforeseen change in the contractual balance making the execution of the contract much more expensive than originally planned. His American corollary could be found in the notion of impracticability.This allows a contract to be discharged from its obligations if following its conclusion an unforeseeable event occurs and makes its execution impossible or much more expensive than expected.What is the effect today of a change in circumstances on the binding force of the contract in French law and in international law?In this study we will analyze the circumstances that effect in the contracts of international business, including the hardship and the force majeure also we will talk about the French law and international laws including the laws in the Arabic spring countries, we will analyze that and find out the solutions for it.

Souvent présenté comme un «maître du temps», le Conseil constitutionnel entretient en réalité avec la temporalité une relation complexe. Le temps est en effet pour le Conseil à la fois une contrainte et une ressource. Il est d’abord une contrainte car le temps enserre le procès constitutionnel dans des délais très stricts que ce soit dans le contentieux a priori ou dans le contentieux a posteriori. Au fil des ans, le Conseil constitutionnel s’est néanmoins accommodé de cette contrainte : il a toujours réussi à juger et, qui plus est, à juger «à temps» en développant des techniques et des méthodes pour apprivoiser cette contrainte temporelle. D’un autre côté cependant, le temps peut être considéré comme une véritable ressource pour le Conseil constitutionnel. Une ressource qui s’exprime par exemple dans la construction d’une jurisprudence originale et novatrice visant à encadrer la temporalité des lois. Une ressource encore avec le développement d’une jurisprudence de la modulation des effets des décisions par laquelle le Conseil adapte ses abrogations et ses réserves d’interprétations à la diversité des situations. C’est de cette relation polarisée entre «temps-contrainte» et «temps-ressource» qu’entend rendre compte la présente étude. / Usually promoted as a “Time Master”, the Constitutional Council is in a more complexrelationship with temporality. As to the Council, Time is both a constraint and a resource. Timeis first a constraint because it ties the constitutional trial in very short delays, either that theCouncil rules a priori or a posteriori. Years passing by, the Council has nevertheless dealt withthe constraint, managing to rule “on time”, developing methods to tame the temporal constraint.On the other hand though, Time can be considered as a resource, expressing itself in theconstruction of an innovative jurisprudence that aims to frame the temporality of laws or in theupgrowth of a jurisprudence linked to the modulation of the time effects of its rulings. Thisstudy underlines such a polarized relationship between “Time-constraint” and “Time-resource”.

Le changement de circonstances est un instrument permettant au Conseil constitutionnel d'affermir l'autorité de ses décisions, tant par le dialogue, que par la cohérence. En tant qu'instrument d'autorité par le dialogue, la notion fait écho à la jurisprudence administrative du Conseil d'Etat. Le Conseil constitutionnel a transposé cette technique au contentieux constitutionnel, ce qui a pour effet de renforcer son caractère juridictionnel. Mais cette réception s'est faite progressivement, évolution consacrée par le législateur organique en 2009. La recherche d'une autorité par le dialogue se manifeste également dans la conception du phénomène du changement de circonstances. Une conception à la fois extensive des circonstances et restrictive du changement. La prise en compte de la notion permet aussi d'affermir l'autorité des décisions du Conseil constitutionnel par la cohérence. C'est d'abord la jurisprudence du Conseil qui gagne en cohérence, en ce que la notion a une fonction de dérogation, mais aussi de justification. Ce sont aussi les normes qui gagnent en cohérence, puisque le changement de circonstances de droit conduit à la cohérence des normes à leur environnement juridique, tandis que le changement de circonstances de fait, qui trouve sa justification dans le besoin d'adaptation du droit à son contexte factuel, renforce le caractère concret du contrôle de constitutionnalité, et renforce la participation du Conseil constitutionnel à la fonction législative. / No English summary available.

A presente dissertação volta-se à análise da alteração superveniente das circunstâncias fáticas, especificamente, em contratos interempresariais. Tais contratos, compreendidos como aqueles em que, ao menos, uma das partes é ente empresarial e ambos os contratantes visam auferir lucro, têm características distintas de outros contratos de natureza civil (contratos existenciais), mormente no que se refere à assunção de riscos pelas partes envolvidas. Dado o caráter arriscado da atividade empresarial, a intervenção exógena nos contratos interempresariais visando à tutela dos contratantes deve ser reduzida, de forma a se privilegiar tanto quanto possível a força obrigatória dos contratos (pacta sunt servanda). Nessa medida, as nuances dos contratos interempresariais, em conjunto com a imprescindível atividade estatal de regulação do mercado (fenômeno poliédrico), demandam uma aplicação diferenciada do modelo da onerosidade excessiva previsto nos artigos 478 a 480 do Código Civil, sob pena de desvirtuamento da lógica empresarial e desestímulo ao tráfico mercantil. O primeiro capítulo deste trabalho é destinado à individualização dos principais vetores da atividade empresarial e os respectivos reflexos daqueles na formação dos contratos empresariais. Em seguida, no segundo capítulo da empreitada, são analisadas as teorias revisionistas de maior influência na construção do modelo de onerosidade excessiva brasileiro, bem como as especificidades do próprio modelo em si. Por fim, o terceiro e conclusivo capítulo visa à identificação do suporte fático da onerosidade excessiva em contratos empresariais, bem como à análise dos efeitos decorrentes da aplicação do modelo a referidas formas de contratação. / This dissertation is focused on the analysis of the change of circumstances, regarding specifically entrepreneurial contracts. These contracts, understood as those in which at least one of the parties involved is an entrepreneurial entity and both of the parties seek to obtain profits with the deal, can be defined by distinguished characteristics when compared to civil contracts in general (contratos existenciais), mainly when it comes to the risk assumption by the parties in the contract. Given the risk inherent to business activities, the exogenous intervention in entrepreneurial contracts aiming the protection of one of the parties should be reduced as much as possible, in such a way to respect the binding force of the contracts (pacta sunt servanda). Accordingly, the specificities of the entrepreneurial contracts, together with the indispensable public regulation of the market (polyhedral phenomenon), require a distinguished applicability of the rules provided by the Brazilian Civil Code under the articles 478 to 480, otherwise entrepreneurial rationality of commercial contracts may be ruined and, as a result, the commercial traffic discouraged. The first chapter of this study is dedicated to finding the main features of the business activity and their implications to the formation of entrepreneurial contracts. Subsequently, in the second chapter of the essay, the theories related to change of circumstances that most influenced the construction of a Brazilian theory are analyzed, as well as the peculiarities of the Brazilian theory itself. Finally, the third and concluding chapter seeks to identify the hypothesis provided by articles 478 to 480 for entrepreneurial contracts, as well to analyze the effects arising from the application of this set of rules to referred contracts.

A presente dissertação volta-se à análise da alteração superveniente das circunstâncias fáticas, especificamente, em contratos interempresariais. Tais contratos, compreendidos como aqueles em que, ao menos, uma das partes é ente empresarial e ambos os contratantes visam auferir lucro, têm características distintas de outros contratos de natureza civil (contratos existenciais), mormente no que se refere à assunção de riscos pelas partes envolvidas. Dado o caráter arriscado da atividade empresarial, a intervenção exógena nos contratos interempresariais visando à tutela dos contratantes deve ser reduzida, de forma a se privilegiar tanto quanto possível a força obrigatória dos contratos (pacta sunt servanda). Nessa medida, as nuances dos contratos interempresariais, em conjunto com a imprescindível atividade estatal de regulação do mercado (fenômeno poliédrico), demandam uma aplicação diferenciada do modelo da onerosidade excessiva previsto nos artigos 478 a 480 do Código Civil, sob pena de desvirtuamento da lógica empresarial e desestímulo ao tráfico mercantil. O primeiro capítulo deste trabalho é destinado à individualização dos principais vetores da atividade empresarial e os respectivos reflexos daqueles na formação dos contratos empresariais. Em seguida, no segundo capítulo da empreitada, são analisadas as teorias revisionistas de maior influência na construção do modelo de onerosidade excessiva brasileiro, bem como as especificidades do próprio modelo em si. Por fim, o terceiro e conclusivo capítulo visa à identificação do suporte fático da onerosidade excessiva em contratos empresariais, bem como à análise dos efeitos decorrentes da aplicação do modelo a referidas formas de contratação. / This dissertation is focused on the analysis of the change of circumstances, regarding specifically entrepreneurial contracts. These contracts, understood as those in which at least one of the parties involved is an entrepreneurial entity and both of the parties seek to obtain profits with the deal, can be defined by distinguished characteristics when compared to civil contracts in general (contratos existenciais), mainly when it comes to the risk assumption by the parties in the contract. Given the risk inherent to business activities, the exogenous intervention in entrepreneurial contracts aiming the protection of one of the parties should be reduced as much as possible, in such a way to respect the binding force of the contracts (pacta sunt servanda). Accordingly, the specificities of the entrepreneurial contracts, together with the indispensable public regulation of the market (polyhedral phenomenon), require a distinguished applicability of the rules provided by the Brazilian Civil Code under the articles 478 to 480, otherwise entrepreneurial rationality of commercial contracts may be ruined and, as a result, the commercial traffic discouraged. The first chapter of this study is dedicated to finding the main features of the business activity and their implications to the formation of entrepreneurial contracts. Subsequently, in the second chapter of the essay, the theories related to change of circumstances that most influenced the construction of a Brazilian theory are analyzed, as well as the peculiarities of the Brazilian theory itself. Finally, the third and concluding chapter seeks to identify the hypothesis provided by articles 478 to 480 for entrepreneurial contracts, as well to analyze the effects arising from the application of this set of rules to referred contracts.

「天有不測風雲，人有旦夕禍福」，生活中往往有不可預測的變故發生，而使社經環境波動、人之資力與其他履約相關能力受到影響。另一方面，貿易全球化、工商業分工專業化，以及電子商務的崛起等，均使交易型態日趨複雜；在契約當事人的有限理性下，欲以契約窮盡規範工商業上所有可能事態，實屬不易。履約環境若如契約締結時當事人之預想，且兩造亦依契約規定確實履行，自是最佳；惟契約之締結與履約行為若非同時發生，在時間上存在間隔而使履約環境暴露於變動風險中，而當事人締約時未加以規範，或有規範但程度超乎預期之變故發生，將可能導致一方當事人難依原契約履行，或依原契約履行已無意義。 　　在傳統私法自治、契約嚴守的概念下，即便遭遇前揭無法預測或預測不完全之變故，仍應依契約履行，而無法律介入之餘地。但毫無彈性的強制履行契約，不論就公平角度，抑或經濟效率而言，對當事人與社會或非妥適；因此，多數國家均將處理情事變更之制度納入法律體系中，以期獲致一較理想之結果。 　　本文首就我國情事變更原則之演進暨學說見解作一整理，並以現行情事變更原則(民法第二百二十七條之二)與我國民法中近似之概念(如不可抗力、動機錯誤)，以及同樣處理「法律行為成立後之情事變更」相關民法法條（如不動產租金因價值升降之增減請求權）互為比較。第三章比較法部分，則以德國「法律行為基礎理論」、美國「履行不能、履行艱難、目的受挫」等規定為標的，敘述其演進及要件，並就其要件及效果與我國情事變更原則比較。第四章以我國近五年最高法院判決為本，依民法二百二十七條之二諸要件，分點探討最高法院與我國學說間見解之異同，並特就「非當時所得預料」及「顯失公平」兩點，觀察最高法院就此之評價方式。第五章則以對我國學說與實務之建議，作為本文之結論。 / Accidents happen from time to time and may seriously change the social and economic environment and affect people’s condition, including their ability to fulfill the contractual duties. At the same time, globalization, professionalization of services and eCommerce all make trades much more complicated than ever. As a result, under bounded rationality as well as finite contract clauses, using contracts to govern almost unlimited possibilities seems like asking for the impossible. The best case for the contractual parties is no unpredictable event happens after the constitution of the contracts; however, if a time gap exists between the entering into and the performing in full of a contract, there can be accidents which lead to the impossibility / impracticability for a party to fulfill the contractual duty, or the performance of a contract becomes meaningless (frustration of purpose). Under the principles of autonomy of private law and strict performance of a contract, there shall be no relief for a party which encounters the foregoing situations of impossibility, impracticability and the frustration of purpose. However, from a fair point of view, asking one party to bear all the disadvantage resulting from an unforeseen event and perform all its duties disregarding the cost may not be the best answer; therefore, in order to introduce more flexibility for the jurisdiction and the contractual parties, countries all over the world gradually adopt the principle of change of circumstances (and similar regulations) which may help to achieve an acceptable result. In this thesis, the principle of change of circumstances in our civil law will firstly be discussed, including its development as well as the elements and effects set forth in Article 227-2; then, two comparisons “(1) between Article 227-2 and similar concepts (force majeure, mistake...)” and “(2) between Article 227-2 and other Articles in our civil law dealing with the events occurring after the establishment of legal relations” will be conducted. In chapter three, the analysis of the regulation in Germany and the United States regarding change of circumstances is carried out. A historical German law review precedes the discussion of current BGB §313 “Störung der Geschäftsgrundlage”, and a comparison between Taiwanese and German regulation is given. After that, the United States’ regulations regarding the doctrine of impossibility, impracticability, and frustration of purpose are discussed in the same manner. At last, a summary comparison among the three countries is served as the conclusion of this chapter. In Chapter four, our Supreme Court’s 162 verdicts from year 2009 to 2013 are analyzed by the elements of Article 227-2, which are: (1)after the constitution of the contract; (2)changing of circumstances happens; (3) such change of circumstances is not predictable; (4)the performance of the original obligation will become obviously unfair; (5) by the party’s application, the court may increase or reduce his payment, or alter the original obligation.At the end, few suggestions for future legislation and Supreme Court’s application of Article 227-2 are given as the conclusion of this thesis.