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Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is a medical system with a unique medical philosophy that continues to guide the contemporary turning out of new pharmaceutical formulae. The clinically-proved effective components of these formulae are being extracted by means of modern technology. Natural Chinese medicines account for approximately 30% of the global sales volume of all medicines, and the international market-size of the TCM industry is increasing rapidly. The TCM industry depends on the patent protection of the results of its R&D no less than does any other industry. However, the patent examination guidelines of many important jurisdictions are hostile to the granting of patents to TCM products and processes. This is partly attributable to the vast differences between the philosophies of TCM and Western medicine, and to the imperfect understanding in many jurisdictions (particularly where Western Medicine is dominant) of the former. To this considerable degree, patent law fails to accommodate the TCM industry. Consequently, the TCM inventor will be left open to the depredations of the ‘free-rider’ phenomenon, the circumstance in which the inventor loses the benefits of his invention, and his investment in it, to a purloiner. The research examines the compatibilities between patent law and TCM, and argues that patent policy shall be adjusted to better accommodate the characteristics of TCM. Other forms of IPR protection are also discussed in comparison with patent with the purpose of illustrating the significance of patent in protecting TCM inventions. / published_or_final_version / Law / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

Trade between Britain and China is rapidly expanding, and shipping law plays an important role in facilitating economic activity. This thesis provides an exemplification on the measure of damages in the carriage of goods by sea in both countries. It will help practitioners as well as scholars from both countries to understand the peculiar features and dynamics of the topic in the other’s shipping laws. The Chinese law of damages and shipping law are not as detailed or as well-structured as its English counterpart. Over the years, some articles in the Chinese Maritime Code (CMC) have been interpreted inconsistently, e.g., art.55, and there is contradiction among different laws on the said topic, resulting in considerable confusion about the law. Bizarre and arguably unjust applications of legal rules continue to surface in claims for damages. A large number of contradictory decisions have been produced in Chinese shipping cases. Similar heads of damages are accepted or rejected in a process which at times seems alarmingly random. It is time to revisit the CMC and the law of damages and to urge their reform. England is a well-established centre of shipping litigation and arbitration in the world and its shipping laws are more influential on Chinese maritime courts than those of any other country. Several senior Chinese scholars suggest that English law is the model on which the reformed CMC should be based. This thesis is written with a view to encouraging a revision of the defects in the CMC and to changing aspects of the current Chinese law of damages. It expounds on the English law part, provides a principled explanation for legal rules in cargo claims, reviews relevant Chinese law, makes comparisons between English and Chinese law at length, addresses the problems in Chinese shipping law and seeks a solution. It is hoped that this thesis can provide instructive recommendations to Chinese lawmakers and clarify the chaos inherent in interpreting the relevant law. In a few aspects, Chinese law seems fairer than the English position, which English scholars may find refreshing and enlightening. This thesis also proposes to increase the awareness of national decision-makers, especially the Chinese, of the international tenor of existing and proposed international maritime laws, as well as the concomitant duty to interpret and implement them as such.

De par le monde, même dans ses territoires les plus reculés, et depuis des siècles parfois, des hommes et des femmes partagent et cultivent des ressources biologiques et des savoirs qu’ils utilisent pour pratiquer la médecine. Afin de pouvoir se développer, être valorisés ou simplement subsister, ces savoir-faire traditionnels en médecine ont besoin d’être protégés, notamment contre la biopiraterie et les brevets prédateurs. Dans cet objectif, afin de comprendre et d’expliciter le champ des possibilités, la présente étude envisage la protection de ces savoirs traditionnels sous divers angles juridiques qui dépassent généreusement les frontières nationales. À cette fin, elle entreprend de caractériser ce qu’est un savoir-faire traditionnel en médecine et d’en établir un portrait historique et législatif. Elle explore ensuite les possibilités protectrices et les écueils du droit de la propriété intellectuelle, mais aussi de nombreuses ouvertures juridiques existantes. Parmi celles-ci sont présentés des législations sui generis et les principaux accords internationaux, au rang desquels émergent la Convention sur la diversité biologique (CDB) et le Protocole de Nagoya, déclinés par quelques nations dans leur législation, de façon hétérogène. Pour parvenir à ses conclusions, cette recherche s’est appuyée sur un fil conducteur tendu entre deux pays emblématiques, la France et la Chine. / Throughout the world and even in remote territories, and for centuries, men and women grow and share biological resources as well as knowledge which they use to practice medicine. This traditional know-how in medicine need to be protected, in particular against biopiracy and predatory patents in order to be able to develop, be valued or merely exist. To that end, in order to understand and clarify the field of possibilities, this study considers the protection of this traditional knowledge from various legal perspectives which go beyond national borders. This study first undertakes to define what a traditional know-how in medicine is and to establish a historic and legal overview. Then, it explores the protective possibilities and the pitfalls of intellectual property laws as well as the numerous existing legal openings. Among these are presented sui generis legislations and major international agreements, to the rank of which emerge the Convention on Biological Diversity (CDB) and the Nagoya Protocol, described in a heterogeneous way by several nations into their legislation. In order to achieve these conclusions, this research relied on a main thread stretched out between two iconic countries, France and China.

Thesis (M.A.)--Furen da xue. / Reproduced from typescript. Includes bibliographical references (p. 197-200).

Thesis (M.A.)--Furen da xue. / Reproduced from typescript. Bibliography: p. 197-200.

Le droit antisubvention est construit par une combinaison des éléments de l'Accord SMC et des solutions du droit interne. Il se trouve au milieu de multiples tensions: l'obligation de conformité à l'égard des accords OMC v. l'autonomie du droit interne, l'équilibre institutionnel interne v. la prévisibilité du droit. La méthode de coordination multilatérale est dans un dilemme: la diffusion de ces tensions risque de laisser trop de marge de manoeuvre au pouvoir exécutif, tandis que trop d'ingérence créera une instabilité systémique. Dans son état actuel, en droit de l'Union européen comme en droit chinois, le droit antisubvention souffre encore d'incohérence entre sa mission et ses moyens: l'effectivité des règles de droit en face des faits économiques complexes reste un défi à relever. Pour la coordination multilatérale du droit antisubvention, l'arrivée de la Chine est à la fois un test de sa crédibilité et une opportunité. L'agressivité de la Chine réveillera éventuellement un besoin et un consensus pour un meilleur encadrement juridique du droit antisubvention. / The antisubsidy law created by dispositions of WTO rules and internal solutions, is situated in the center of multiple normative conflicts: firstly between obligation of compliance and the autonomy of internal legal order; and secondly between the need of institutional balance and the predictability of rules. The method of multilateral coordination is facing a dilemma, the diffusion of those tensions will give the executing authority too much leeway, but intervention will create systematical difficulties. As it is, both in European Union Law and in Chinese Law, the antisubsidy law suffers an incoherence between its mission and its capacity in terms of the effectiveness of its rules facing complexes economic realities. The arrival of China, is both a test and an oppotunity to the multilateral legal coordination on the use of countervailing duty. The aggressive use of the trade defense arm such as countervailing duty, could eventually awake a nee d and a consensus of better legal framework of the antisubsidy law.

As one of the most distinctive characteristics of English insurance law, the duty of utmost good faith is essentially stated in sections 17-20 of the Marine Insurance Act 1906. According to the statutory rules, both of the insurance parties must observe utmost good faith before the conclusion of an insurance contract. After one century of its application, both the judiciary and academics expressed their concerns in terms of its legislative defects and complexity in practice. Some developments have been made in recent judicial decisions and in statutory reform, e.g. the English Consumer Insurance (Disclosure and Representations) Act 2012, and Recommendations, Statutes and Explanations on the Amendments of Chinese Maritime Code of the People’s Republic of China. Therefore, debatable issues and law reform programs in both English and Chinese law are considered in the main body of this thesis. The examination is essentially based upon, (1) the materiality test of the concealed/misrepresented circumstances which can empower the injured party to rescind the insurance abinitio; (2) the duration of utmost good faith and specific issues; (3) the protective measures related to innocent misconduct; (4) the legal status of good faith and its application to fraudulent behaviour; and (5) whether the classic English utmost good faith doctrine can be extended to Chinese law. Therefore, the main objective of this thesis is to provide a comprehensive study of the current status and developments of the duty of utmost good faith in both English and Chinese law, which is of fundamental importance, not only at the negotiation stage, but also throughout the performance and at the claiming stage of an insurance contract. After identifying and analysing these crucial issues, this thesis concludes with some possible solutions.

6. SUMMARY The purpose of my thesis is to describe the administrative organization in the People's Republic of China. The reason for my research is the growing interest resulting need for its introduction to the public. The thesis is composed of five chapters, each of them dealing with different aspects of Chinese administration. Chapter One is introductory and in its first subdivision it depicts the methodology used in the process of my research and also defines basic rules for translations of terminology used in the thesis. The second subdivision addresses the issue of literature and sources used in this thesis. Chapter Two introduces the geography, population and territorial divisions of China. The next chapter is subdivided into six parts. Part One specifies the Chinese legal culture, while the second part provides an overview of the legal development in the 20th century. Part Three investigates the legal and political system of nowadays China. Part Four depicts and explains the bodies of state power, while the next part introduces the Chinese Communist Party, which in fact is the main authority when discussing the state power in China and the most important decision-making body. The last part deals with the categorization of normative acts in China. Chapter Four concentrates on administrative...

Les investissements étrangers directs (IED), définis comme étant un transfert de capital durable d'un pays source à une entreprise formée ou exploitée sur le territoire du pays hôte, sont importants pour le développement économique international. Vu l'importance de ce phénomène, la Chine a placé les IED au premier plan de sa politique d'ouverture et les organisations internationales telles que l'Organisation mondiale du commerce tentent de mettre en place un cadre pour régir les IED. Les positions de négociations sont toutefois très difficiles à concilier et la Chine occupe depuis son accession en 2001 un rôle d'intermédiaire entre les positions des pays industrialisés et des pays en développement. Le droit international a par ailleurs un impact sur le droit interne d'un pays comme la Chine, tout comme son bagage idéologique et culturel. L'analyse du droit interne chinois nous permet d'évaluer la protection qui est accordée aux IED et au marché chinois, ce dernier ayant pour effet de traiter de manière discriminatoire les IED. Les règles restreignant les secteurs d'activités dans lesquels des projets d'IED sont autorisés, tout autant que celles établissant les structures corporatives pouvant être utilisées ou celles régissant les contrats nécessaires aux opérations de l'entreprise à investissement étranger ont essentiellement pour but de protéger le marché chinois et créent donc de la discrimination à l'égard des IED. Les règles prévoyant des incitatifs fiscaux pour les entreprises à investissement étranger ont à l'inverse pour effet d'accorder un traitement privilégié aux projets d'IED en fonction de zones géographiques et de secteurs d'activités dans le cadre de la politique de développement économique de la Chine. Ce droit interne doit toutefois être correctement appliqué pour avoir les effets escomptés sur le traitement des IED. En Chine, on ne peut pas conclure que l'état de droit soit en place, les relations interpersonnelles jouant encore un rôle capital. De ce fait, les nombreuses lois, en apparence complètes, qui continuent d'avoir comme principal objectif de protéger le marché chinois, n'accordent pas la sécurité juridique à laquelle pourrait s'attendre un investisseur occidental. Le constat: la protection accordée aux IED est insuffisante en Chine bien qu'elle s'améliore rapidement et un traitement souvent discriminatoire des IED subsiste dans le but de protéger le marché. Il nous apparaît donc qu'il n'y a pas encore d'équilibre entre la protection des investisseurs et la protection du marché chinois. / Foreign direct investments (FDI), a sustainable transfer of capital from one country to an enterprise formed or operated by the foreign investor on the territory of the host country are very important for the economic development at an international level. China has made FDI a top priority for its open door policy. Given the importance of FDI, international organisations such as the World trade organization are attempting to put in place a convention to deal with FDI. The negotiating positions are hard to reconcile but China has adopted, since its accession to the WTO in 2001, the role of the intermediary between the developed and the developing worlds. International law as weil as the political and cultural backgrounds of China, have an important impact on intemallaws regarding FDI. By analyzing Chinese laws on FDI it is possible to determine the level of protection granted to FDI and to the Chinese market, this second element having a direct impact on a discriminatory treatment of foreign investors in China. Rules regarding the sectors of activities, the corporate structures available to FDI and the laws regarding contracts necessary for the business operations essentially have for objective the protection of the Chinese market and consèquently, have for effect to discriminate FDI. In contrast, tax legislation applicable to FDI has a positive impact granting them preferential treatments in conjunction with geographic zones or sectors of activities and thus also has the effect of responding to China's commercial and development imperatives. Although legislation pertaining to FDI in China may appear complete, laws must be applied properly in order to have their expected effects on the treatment of FDI. Because of many factors such as the cultural background of China, there is no rule of law in China; relationships are still very important and laws come second. Consequently, the laws and regulations, even if many of them have the objective of protecting the market, fail to protect the FDI properly on the Chinese territory. Our conclusion is that protection granted to FDI is insufficient although it is improving rapidly and the treatment of FDI is in many cases still discriminatory in order to protect the Chinese market. It seems that the protection of the investors and the protection of the Chinese market have yet to reach a balance. / "Mémoire présenté à la Faculté des études supérieures en vue de l'obtention du grade de Maîtrise en droit, option droit commercial". Ce mémoire a été accepté à l'unanimité et classé parmi les 10% des mémoires de la discipline.