The principle of territoriality is a truism in intellectual property (IP) law. A premise underlying the principle is the right of each state to determine the extent to which IP rights exist and are protected within its own territory to fulfil its own economic, social and cultural policy goals. This is done by giving a right to prevent others from doing within the protected territory any of the acts that are exclusively reserved to the right holder under the IP statute that granted or protects the IP right. The principle of territoriality informs that IP rights granted or protected by a state are independent from those granted or protected by other states, and that the rights conferred under each state’s IP law are limited to the territory of that state. As the principle of territoriality neatly allocated jurisdiction among states on a territorial basis, it purportedly obviated the need for private international law. Each state exercised jurisdiction over the infringement of its own rights and applied its own domestic IP law, which served the interests of the states and of the parties. With the increase in the protection and exploitation of IP rights across national borders, infringements do not remain within hermetically sealed national territories. Acts taken in one state can have effects in other states and impair the policies that the rights were designed to fulfil. This raises questions concerning the territorial scope of application of the domestic IP law, that is, whether it is interpreted with respect to a domestic tangible act, effects on a domestic policy goal or both. In addition, the transborder exploitation of IP rights raises questions of private international law with respect to whether states exercise jurisdiction and apply national law to disputes concerning infringements of their domestic rights or whether states exercise jurisdiction and apply national law to disputes arising from acts committed in their territories (or both). These determinations may depend on different factors such as the different interests taken into consideration (e.g. state or party interests), the different legal traditions upon which the legal systems are based and the characteristics and functions of the IP rights themselves. This dissertation compares the interpretation and operation of the principle of territoriality of IP law in the private law resolution of transborder IP infringement disputes in the legal systems of the European Union and the United States, two distinctly different legal systems that have significant trade and investment relations with each other. The comparison shows that while the systems are functionally similar, the principle of territoriality is interpreted and operates somewhat differently in the two legal systems.

This thesis is a comparison between the Mexico City Convention and the Rome Convention concerning the Conventions’ scope of application, how the applicable law to a contract is determined, and how the applicable law is affected by mandatory rules and public policy. The two Conventions deal with the question of which country’s law is to apply to a contract with international connections. The Conventions do in several situations lead to the same outcome as far as the applicable law is concerned. The reason for this is partly that the Mexico City Convention is based on the Rome Convention. However, there are also differences. One difference between the Conventions is the structure used. The wording of the Rome Convention is more detailed than the wording used in the Mexico City Convention. Another difference that exists concerns the characteristic performance test which is not used in the Mexico City Convention. Moreover, the Mexico City Convention is the more recent one of them, something that is notable in certain provisions since another and more modern approach is chosen. A more notable adjustment to the needs of the international trade is chosen.

<p>This thesis is a comparison between the Mexico City Convention and the Rome Convention concerning the Conventions’ scope of application, how the applicable law to a contract is determined, and how the applicable law is affected by mandatory rules and public policy. The two Conventions deal with the question of which country’s law is to apply to a contract with international connections.</p><p>The Conventions do in several situations lead to the same outcome as far as the applicable law is concerned. The reason for this is partly that the Mexico City Convention is based on the Rome Convention. However, there are also differences. One difference between the Conventions is the structure used. The wording of the Rome Convention is more detailed than the wording used in the Mexico City Convention. Another difference that exists concerns the characteristic performance test which is not used in the Mexico City Convention. Moreover, the Mexico City Convention is the more recent one of them, something that is notable in certain provisions since another and more modern approach is chosen. A more notable adjustment to the needs of the international trade is chosen.</p>

This thesis explores issue of whether Texas courts are currently capable of applying and willing to apply Mexican law. Texas courts and legal practitioners have historically been unwilling to trust or to apply Mexican law. This thesis explores the doctrines and legal rules that Texas courts have used to avoid Mexican law in the past and into the present. It then examines the few cases in which Texas courts have applied Mexican law to determine that even when applying Mexican law, the courts express uncertainty or an unwillingness to rely entirely on Mexican law. This thesis then describes recent reforms to the Mexican judiciary that should obviate some of Texas courts’ major concerns. However, Texas courts still do not willingly or comfortably apply Mexican law. This thesis concludes by suggesting that the comparative law doctrine of judicial dialogue, or communication among judges, offers the best chance for Texas judges to trust Mexican law enough to apply it. The paper ends with some proposals to implement this exchange. / text

Rome Convention and Rome I Regulation on the law applicable to contractual obligations From 17 December 2009 the courts of all EU Member States other than Denmark are obliged to determine the applicable law for contracts with an international element entered into on or after this date on the basis of a Regulation (EC) No 593/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 on the law applicable to contractual obligations (the Regulation). The Regulation applies to most commercial and civil law contracts. These rules are not a radical departure from the rules previously applicable in the Czech Republic, i.e. the Rome Convention on the law applicable to contractual obligations from 1980 (the Convention). The Convention was published in the Collection of the International Treaties as notification No 64/2006 Coll. and it applies to contracts concluded after 1 July 2006. Where neither the Convention nor the Regulation applies, the Czech courts will generally look to the relevant national law, Act No 97/1963 Coll. on Private International and Procedural Law as amended. The purpose of this thesis was to provide an overview of some of the most important provisions of the Regulation in comparison to the Convention, to highlight the areas of change in this new instrument. The first part of the...

This thesis deals with the topic of international mediation. It starts with its theoretical concept and analyzes the individual elements of the definition of mediation, which it divides into essential and additional. It then covers the history of the mediation procedure in the ancient times and the modern approach. It also attempts to solve the confusing terminology of mediation and conciliation. In chapter two it moves on to the description of other hybrid forms such as MEDALOA, med-arb or arb-med. The third chapter describes the individual forms of mediation with focus on court mediation in particular. First, its implementation possibilities are explored, which are followed by practical examples of judicial mediation in different countries. Chapter four is devoted to the regulatory framework starting with international documents. It compares mediation rules of several mediation institutions across the world. Then it investigates the pros and cons of the European mediation directive 2008/52/ES and two codices of behavior for mediators. Finally, the last part of chapter four is concerned with Czech mediation law. It provides an outline of the Law No. 202/2012 Coll. and the newest soft law document - Codex of attorney-mediator. Information from this chapter is transferred to a comparison table for more...

Rome Convention and Rome I Regulation on the law applicable to contractual obligations The purpose of my thesis is to analyse some main aspects of Regulation (EC) No 593/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 on the law applicable to contractual obligations (the Regulation) especially with regard to the Rome Convention on the law applicable to contractual obligations from 1980 (the Convention) and to provide an overview of changes compared to the Convention. The Convention was published in the Collection of the International Treaties as notification No 64/2006 Sb. m. s. and it applies to contracts concluded after 1 July 2006. The Regulation oblige the courts of all EU Member States except Denmark to determine the applicable law for contracts with an international element entered into on or after 17 December 2009 according to the Regulation's provisions. Where neither the Convention nor the Regulation applies, the Czech courts will generally look to the relevant national law, Act No 97/1963 Sb. on Private International and Procedural Law as amended. From 1 January 2014 would be applied its superseder Act No 91/2012 Sb. on Private International Law. The thesis is composed of ten chapters, each of them dealing with different aspects of choice of law rules applicable to contractual...

The dissertation thesis deals with choice of law and choice of court in the area of international trade, as governed by the EU and international legal instruments. The thesis is divided into 4 basic chapters, its centerpiece being chapters II and III, which contain a detailed analysis of choice of law and choice of court in the EU legal instruments and also in international agreements. Chapter I is an introduction of the topic, while chapter IV brings a summary of findings and conclusions made throughout the thesis. The introductory chapter brings about the justification, why it was choice of law and choice of court, which have become the subject matter of the thesis. Right at the beginning, the importance of these tools for international transactions is demonstrated; principle of party autonomy, which is reflected in these tools, plays a key role here. It is party autonomy principle and its history, what is analyzed in the first part of this chapter, while the author comes back to this pivotal (and nowadays in principle universally respected) principle also in other chapters, always in relation to the specific legal instruments dealt with therein. The introductory chapter also discusses the reasons, why parties conclude choice of law agreements and it also analyses under which circumstances they...

This dissertation examines the influence of politics and legal education on choice of law for international contracts. The motivation for this study is to challenge the traditional approach of analyzing choice of law by highlighting the impact of areas exogenous to law in the judge’s decision-making process; as well as the importance of examining choice of law from a multi-disciplinary perspective. This motivation is achieved through the comparison of five jurisdictions belonging to a variety of geographical locations and legal traditions. They represent the common (U.S.) and civil law traditions (Venezuela), a mixed jurisdiction (Puerto Rico), an Arabic jurisdiction (Lebanon), and a European jurisdiction (England). Each one of these sample jurisdictions is examined in a chapter that includes the evolution of choice of law for international contracts, and the evaluation of the influence of legal education and politics in case law. When necessary, a historical background is included to clarify the previous aspects. Data have been collected from books, periodicals, online newspapers, blogs and reports, case law, interviews with university professors, judges and practitioners, and the offices of academic services from two universities. The investigation of each jurisdiction leads to a final comparative chapter in which overall and structural remarks are made. The struggle between certainty and flexibility, the interaction between judges and legislators, the expansion of flexible connecting factors, and the internationalization of commercial needs are some of the aspects evaluated under the overall comparisons. The abuse of discretionary power, the count of contacts as a choice of law method, the role of public policy in civil law traditions, and the relationships between presumptions and escape clauses, and lack choice and implied choice of law, are among the topics examined under the structural comparison section. The conclusion of this study is that judges belong to a society that shapes them and influences their decisions in ways that lawyers do not always consider when choosing the applicable law to international contracts. Two of the means by which society affects judges are legal education and politics; in this era of pluralism of the sources their impact can no longer be ignored. / acase@tulane.edu

The globalization and the realization of a European common insurance market have increased the importance of cross border insurance contracts. Despite that, a gathered set of rules regulating cross border insurance contracts does not exist. The sets of rules within Private International Law which arises today when determining the applicable law regarding cross border insurance contracts are the law of 1993 on applicable law to certain insurance contracts (the law of 1993) and the law of 1998 on applicable law to contractual obligations (Rome Convention). Since the Rome Convention is the only Community instrument which still is in the form of a treaty, work has been done in order to convert it into a regulation, called the Rome-I-regulation. Therefore, the future Rome I-regulation is of importance for the thesis as well since it most likely will replace the Rome Convention. Swedish law is based on the principle of party autonomy, which means that the contracting parties have the right to freely agree on the content of the contract, including the choice of law. However, the thesis shows that some limitations to the parties’ freedom of choice does exist in the different sets of rules. The thesis also examines how the two sets of rules differ concerning the extent of the freedom of choice of law. Further, the thesis investigates the distinction between the rules regarding the choice of law within the same set of rules. In addition, the objective choice of law in accordance with the sets of rules is discussed. Which of the sets of rules that is applicable on a certain insurance contract is often difficult to foresee, particularly for someone who is not familiar with the legal systems. It is even more complicated to determine which provision in a certain set of rules that is applicable on a contracting party. Article 3 in the Rome Convention permits party autonomy regarding the choice of law in a business to business relation. When the contract involves a consumer, the party autonomy is reduced. Here, article 5 in the Rome Convention allow the parties to choose applicable law, but the choice shall not have the result of depriving the consumer of the protection afforded to him by the mandatory rules of the law of the consumer’s country. A problem that the provision brings is that most of the insurance consumer contracts fall outside its scope since they rarely meet the criteria which the provision sets out. Instead the consumer contracts normally fall under the provisions in article 3, especially developed for businessmen on an equal level. The law of 1993 differ between small and large risks. A free choice of law is basicly only allowed when the insurance contract involves a large risk, which mainly includes risks insured by larger companies. When the insured risk is defined as a small risk, the choice of law is limited. Only under certain circumstances are the parties allowed to choose another law than the law in the country where the policy-holder has his habitual residence or central administration, or the law of the country where the risk is situated. Insurance contracts regarding small risks are usually signed by private persons or, to a certain extent, small- or medium sized companies. / Gränsöverskridande försäkringsavtal har fått en ökad betydelse i takt med globaliseringen och efter genomförandet av en inre europeisk marknad på försäkringsområdet. Trots det saknas ett samlat regelverk som reglerar lagval avseende gränsöverskridande försäkringsavtal. De regelverk i svensk internationell privaträtt som idag aktualiseras vid fastställandet av tillämplig lag på gränsöverskridande skadeförsäkringsavtal är lag (1993:645) om tillämplig lag för vissa försäkringsavtal (1993 års lag) och lag (1998:167) om tillämplig lag för avtalsförpliktelser (Romkonventionen). Då Romkonventionen är det enda gemenskapsinstrument som är i formen av ett fördrag pågår det ett arbete för att omvandla konventionen till en förordning, med arbetsnamnet Rom I. Även den framtida Rom I-förordningen är av betydelse för uppsatsen eftersom den med stor sannolikhet kommer att ersätta Romkonventionen. Utgångspunkten i svensk rätt är att avtalsfrihet råder, även vad gäller val av tillämplig lag. Det finns emellertid vissa begränsningar av parternas fria lagval i regelverken. Framställningen undersöker främst hur regelverken skiljer sig åt vad gäller omfattningen av parternas fria lagval. Ytterligare tillkommer det att utröna de olikheter som finns avseende partautonomin mellan reglerna i samma regelverk. Diskussion förs även om hur det objektiva lagvalet fastställs enligt regelverken i det fall parterna inte har gjort något lagval. Vilket av regelverken som blir tillämpligt på ett visst försäkringsavtal är svårt att förutse, framför allt för någon som inte är juridiskt insatt. Ännu svårare är det att fastställa vilken regel i ett visst regelverk en försäkringstagare omfattas av. Enligt artikel 3 i Romkonventionen råder i princip obegränsad partsautonomi mellan näringsidkare vad gäller lagvalet. Annorlunda blir det i ett konsumentförhållande där omfattningen av partsautonomin är begränsad. Parterna kan avtala om tillämplig lag även här, men lagvalet får inte medföra att konsumenten berövas det skydd som denne garanteras enligt lagen i sitt hemland enligt artikel 5. Problemet med bestämmelsen är att de flesta konsumentförsäkringsavtal hamnar utanför reglernas tillämpningsområde då de sällan kan uppfylla kriterierna som ställs upp i artikeln. Som en följd därav omfattas de istället av den generella regeln i artikel 3 som är särskilt utvecklad för jämbördiga näringsidkare. Det objektiva lagvalet fastställs i konventionen enligt närhetsprincipen med hjälp av en rad presumptioner. För försäkringsavtal aktualiseras i huvudsak regeln om den karaktäristiska prestationen. I 1993 års lag görs en uppdelning mellan massrisker och stora risker. Lagen tillåter endast partsautonomi i den mån den försäkrade risken faller under definitionen av en stor risk. Hit hör främst försäkringar som tecknats av större företag. Då den försäkrade risken är en massrisk är det fria lagvalet istället starkt begränsat. Ytterst sällan har parterna rätt att välja någon annan lag än lagen i det land där försäkringstagaren har sitt hemvist eller centrala förvaltning, eller, lagen i det land där risken är belägen. Försäkring för massrisker tecknas främst av privatpersoner och i viss mån av mindre företag. Även i Rom I råder obegränsad partsautonomi för de försäkringsavtal som omfattas av huvudregeln i artikel 3. Däremot har partsautonomin helt tagits bort för de konument-försäkringsavtal vilka faller under artikel 5. Istället underkastas ett sådant avtal alltid konsumentens lands lag. Vidare har en fast regel utformats för att fastställa det objektiva lagvalet som innebär att försäkringsgivarens lands lag skall tillämpas på försäkringsavtalet, såtillvida avtalet inte omfattas av artikel 5. Romkonventionen och 1993 års lag skiljer sig åt, både lagtekniskt och i deras bakomliggande syfte. Reglerna i konventionen är av generell natur eftersom de är utformade för tillämpas på ett stort antal olika slags avtal. 1993 års lag är istället specifikt utformad för att reglera lagval för försäkringsavtal. Att lagvalsreglerna är oharmoniserade leder till att EU-medborgare behandlas olika beroende på var försäkringstagaren har sitt försäkrade intresse. Ur konsumentskyddssynpunkt är Romkonventionen inte heller särskilt väl lämpad för försäkringsavtal. Omfattningen av partsautonomin för försäkringsavtal varierar, både mellan regelverken och inom dem. Problemet med de oharmoniserade lagvalsreglerna på försäkringsområdet har uppmärksammats vid arbetet med revideringen av Romkonventionens artiklar med anledning av en framtida omvandling till en förordning. Problemet kvarstår dock även efter revideringen av artiklarna. Omfattningen av partsautonomin har inskränkts i Rom I i förhållande till Romkonventionen.