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Research has shown that there are a number of risk factors that increase the odds of youth joining gangs, from individual- to family- to neighborhood-level risks. Studies have identified child abuse and other childhood traumatic experiences as influences on gang membership. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) provide a framework for how to measure and identify these traumatic events. This dissertation study uses longitudinal data from the Pittsburgh Youth Study (PYS) to inform the relationship between early life events and later gang membership. First, the count of total ACEs experienced by gang involved youth were compared to nongang youth. Then, latent class analysis was used to create groupings of ACEs to determine if particular classes of adverse events are associated with higher odds of gang membership during later adolescence. Using the longitudinal data structure of the PYS, additional latent classes were developed when breaking up the adversity into separate age ranges. ACE categories for the youngest cohort were able to be divided into early school entry (elementary school), early adolescence (middle school), and later adolescence (high school) due to their earlier age of first survey, and then these age-graded categories were added into the latent class model to determine if age specific adversity increased odds of gang membership. Lastly, covariates were added into the model to test if time-stable elements increased odds of belonging to one of the classes identified in the initial latent class analysis. The methods described above produced results, showing that gang involved youth have significantly more childhood adversity than nongang involved youth on average. When the latent class analysis was conducted, a three-class solution was found to be the most appropriate model, with classes with higher odds of adversity leading to greater odds of gang membership. There was no significant difference between two classes that had higher odds of adversity, though both included high rates of community violence experiences and parental separation. There were mixed findings on the impact of age specific adversity. Lastly, covariates were added into the model finding early school achievement plays a large role in predicting class membership, while familial financial strain does not. The findings from this dissertation have important implications for policy and practice around gang prevention and intervention in that they can help pinpoint constellations of risk factors. Evidence-based school intervention programs, such as The Fourth R-- an in-school intervention designed to reduce delinquency through positive relationship building with teachers, parents, and pro-social peers (Crooks et al., 2011)-- are important for reducing the odds of experiencing higher odds of adversity. Additionally, programs that work with youth who experience adversity can help reduce the hurt they perpetrate on others. / Criminal Justice

Heterogeneity in the profile of HIV-associated neuropsychological disorder (HAND) may obscure understanding of its etiology and prognosis. Despite longstanding acknowledgement of this heterogeneity, HAND diagnostic approaches such as the Frascati criteria characterize neuropsychological function based on the level of impairment, without regard to the pattern of strengths and weaknesses. Attention to these patterns may enhance etiologic and prognostic specificity. We used latent class analysis (LCA) to identify relatively homogeneous subtypes of neurocognitive function in adults with well-treated HIV infection. We compared the diagnostic agreement of latent classes and Frascati categories, as well as their associations with demographics, HIV markers and antiretroviral factors, comorbid medical and psychiatric conditions, and everyday functioning. LCA identified four classes, whose cognitive profiles are depicted in Figure 1: cognitively intact, mild-to-moderate motor/speed impairment, mild-to-moderate memory/visuoconstruction impairment, and moderate mixed impairment. Latent classes and Frascati categories demonstrated good agreement in the overall classification of impaired cognition but more disagreement regarding subtypes of impairment. Both latent classes and Frascati categories demonstrated unique associations with etiologic factors and significant associations with functional outcomes. However, only latent classes, not Frascati categories, were associated with HIV variables. Additionally, functional difficulties were significantly elevated in the motor impairment class but not the memory impairment class despite similar levels of cognitive impairment in the two groups. Findings support the utility of a diagnostic approach that accounts for both the level and pattern of neurocognitive impairment. Future research should examine the neuropathological mechanisms, longitudinal trajectories, and treatments of empirically identified HAND subtypes. / Psychology

Although there has been a recent surge in research examining comorbidity between externalizing and internalizing disorders in childhood, relatively less work has examined relations between specific externalizing conditions (i.e., oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) symptoms) and their co-occurrence with specific internalizing conditions (i.e., depressive symptoms). Furthermore, little empirical work has evaluated potential underlying processes, such as emotion dysregulation, which may explain relations between co-occurring ODD and depressive symptoms. There is also a paucity of research examining developmental patterns of co-occurring ODD and depressive symptoms. In the present study, I used latent class and latent transition analyses to (a) identify groups of children based on ODD and depressive symptom levels, (b) determine whether emotion dysregulation predicted co-occurring ODD and depressive symptoms, and (c) examine developmental patterns of change and continuity in groups across middle childhood within a community-based sample. Children were characterized by three latent classes based on ODD and depressive symptom severity: a group with very low levels of ODD or depressive symptoms, an ODD-only group with low levels of symptoms, and a co-occurring ODD and depressive symptom group with moderate levels of ODD and low levels of depressive symptoms. Furthermore, emotion dysregulation predicted to the class with moderate levels of ODD and low levels of depressive symptoms, although prediction from emotion dysregulation to class membership depended on the methodology used to index emotion dysregulation. Results of the LTA analyses suggested that symptom severity was relatively stable across middle childhood, with little evidence of changes in developmental patterns of ODD and depressive symptoms. Overall, the results of this study provide an important foundation for more sophisticated empirical inquiry regarding co-occurring ODD and depressive symptoms in childhood and potential processes that may explain their onset and development. / Psychology

Studies suggest that nearly two-thirds of women fake or have faked orgasm, yet few researchers have explicitly examined this phenomenon. Previous studies have identified some group differences between women who fake orgasm and those who do not on dimensions of sexual experience, emotion regulation, intimacy, relationship status, and sexual functioning. To date, research into this phenomenon has relied solely on variable-centered analyses (e.g., exploratory factor analysis, correlation, and regression). This study used a person-centered approach (i.e., latent class analysis; LCA) to explore differences in women's motives across individuals, using scores from the Faking Orgasm Scale. A 5-class model was determined to be most interpretable and the best fitting to the data. Classes included low, moderate, and high frequency faking orgasm, partner-focused faking orgasm, and pleasure-focused faking orgasm. These classes were then compared on dimensions of sexual functioning, intimacy, and emotion regulation, as well as demographic variables (e.g., age, length of relationship, number of sexual partners). Significant differences were found in sexual desire, sexual activity, and orgasmic consistency, but not in sexual satisfaction. Significant differences were also evidenced in intimacy, general level of emotion dysregulation, and across various dimensions of emotion regulation. No differences across classes were revealed on age, length of relationship, or number of sexual partners. These findings can serve as the foundation for further exploration into understanding women's various styles of interacting sexually with a partner and may have implications for couples therapy, sex therapy, and individual interventions for women struggling with physical and/or emotional intimacy with a partner. / Psychology

A multitude of research demonstrates that ADHD is associated with negative psychological correlates and outcomes among children, such as academic difficulties and peer relationship problems. Youth with ADHD also experience high rates of comorbidity or co-occurring conditions, including mood, anxiety, oppositional defiant, and conduct disorders. However, few studies have investigated the development of co-occurring psychological symptoms among youth with ADHD over time and across different developmental periods. Shared risk factors likely contribute to the development of ODD, CD, anxiety, and depression among youth with ADHD. Emotion regulation and parenting style may confer risk or resilience for the development of co-occurring symptoms, but research is wanting. The current study examined an existing sample of youth who were recruited at age 10-12 and were followed at age 12-14 and 16. Analyses aimed to (a) identify subgroups of youth varying in type and levels of ADHD and co-occurring symptoms at three different time points using latent class analyses, (b) examine stability of membership and transitions to classes that differ in levels of ADHD and co-occurring symptoms using latent transition analyses, and (c) investigate emotion regulation and parenting style as predictors of stability and transitions among classes. Results revealed different patterns of ADHD and co-occurring symptoms, including a Low Symptoms class at each time point. Classes of youth with ADHD+Externalizing problems and ADHD+Internalizing problems emerged at ages 10-12 and 12-14. At age 16, two classes with qualitatively and quantitatively different externalizing and internalizing symptoms were identified. Latent transition analyses revealed transitions into the Low Symptoms class from each time point, but also stability and transitions to other symptomatic classes. Predictor analyses indicated that emotion regulation and parenting style were associated with transitions among and stability within classes, but findings were dependent on whether classes were defined primarily by co-occurring externalizing or internalizing symptoms. Results of the present study indicate that children with ADHD are likely to exhibit a range of psychological symptoms, but the frequency and quality of co-occurring symptoms may change over time. Emotion regulation and parenting may be potential targets for enhanced interventions among youth with ADHD with and without co-occurring symptoms. / Psychology

Labeling is a product differentiation mechanism which has increased in prevalence across many markets. This study investigated the potential for a labeling program applied in ornamental plant sales, given key ongoing issues affecting ornamental plant producers: irrigation water use and plant disease. Our research investigated how to better understand the market for plants certified as disease free and/or produced using water conservation techniques through segmenting the market by consumers' environmental preferences. Latent class analysis was conducted using choice modeling survey results and respondent scores on the New Environmental Paradigm scale. The results show that when accounting for environmental preferences, consumers can be grouped into two market segments. Relative to each other, these segments are considered: price sensitive and attribute sensitive. Our research also investigated market segments' preferences for multiple certifying authorities. The results strongly suggest that consumers of either segment do not have a preference for any particular certifying authority. / Master of Science

Insufficient knowledge of residential preferences represents a major obstacle to achieving residential satisfaction and quality of life. This obstacle is even greater in the case of transit-oriented developments (TODs), as their success depends, in part, on the degree to which people's preferences are consistent with their residential environments. This study employed a visual choice experiment, which combines the benefits of visual preference surveys and discrete choice experiments, to elicit residential preference for TODs in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, before the opening of its citywide public transportation system. Using a seemingly homogeneous sample of participants, the analysis incorporated three analytical methods to elicit residential preference: a multinomial logit model, a mixed logit model, and a latent class model. The results indicated the presence of preference heterogeneity and the emergence of four lifestyle classes that could explain and predict residential preference patterns. People with similar sociodemographic characteristics may have different lifestyles based on their choice behavior, marital status, and public transit attitudes. Additionally, the results showed a strong preference for low-density housing, even among those who favor living in a TOD; however, increasing density could be mitigated through the presence of other TOD attributes. The findings of this research point to the diversity of residential preferences and suggest that providing a variety of residential environments increases the likelihood that people will find their preferred environment. Additionally, planning efforts to convert all developments near transit, particularly in suburban locations, to TODs might be unsuitable in cities where public transportation has been introduced only recently. Instead, deferring TOD conversion efforts until public transportation and its use are mature may attract people to live near transit and encourage the gradual development of transit affinity in residents who may otherwise reject TOD living completely. Lastly, the successful application of a visual choice experiment in this research opens up a variety of potential analytical methods that are used commonly in other fields and have the potential to move visual preference research into the realm of robust empirical investigation. / Ph. D. / The work of urban planners, urban designers, architects, and policy makers centers on improving the built environment and increasing the quality of people’s lives. However, their work entails making decisions that are not always in tandem with people’s preferences (e.g., increasing housing density, proposing a mix of land uses in residential neighborhoods, introducing public transportation close to where people live and work, to name a few). Due to the uncertainty surrounding people’s acceptance of modifications of the built environment, especially when it entails introducing residential attributes for the first time, this dissertation focused on 1) assessing residential preference near public transportation nodes in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia before operation of the public transportation system, and 2) assessing the extent to which advanced analytical methods are capable of providing a better understanding of residential preference differences among a seemingly homogenous sample of participants. The work in this dissertation was motivated by the increasing use of manipulated images in choice tasks, where participants are presented with multiple images, each depicting a residential scenario, as bundles to choose from, and their choice patterns then recorded and analyzed. The results showed that among the relatively homogenous sample of participants that was recruited, four significant residential preference patterns have emerged, which could be used to describe and predict residential preference and choice with great accuracy. This dissertation laid out several policy implications that could be useful in providing a built environment that matches with what people want. It also provided research implications and suggestions on the use of visual choice experiments for urban planners and designers that are well-developed in other fields of inquiry.

The Outcome Questionnaire (OQ-45; Lambert et al., 1996) has been widely employed as a psychotherapy outcome monitoring measure following research findings that support various aspects of its validity and sensitivity to change. Despite its broad usage in both clinical and research settings, some of its psychometric properties are not definite. The three subscales of the OQ-45 are designed to measure three distinct, but related, aspects of psychological functioning. However, neither the one- nor three-factor models have been supported by previous research. Likewise, the results of the current study supported neither of those factor structures. It was suspected that heterogeneity in data might have led to the lack of the confirmatory factor analysis model fit. Therefore, factor mixture modeling (FMM), a combination of confirmatory factor analysis and latent class analysis, was employed to investigate potential heterogeneity of the data. Among the series of factor mixture models with varying numbers of classes that were fitted, the two-class, unconditional FMM based on the revised three-factor solution was decided to best describe the data under analysis. Although three covariates of clinical status, sex, and race were selected as known sources of heterogeneity and incorporated into the FMMs (i.e., conditional model), the findings were contradictory to expectations. The implications of these findings in counseling were discussed in terms of aggregating OQ-45 scores and its score interpretation. Furthermore, this study demonstrates the process involved and dilemmas encountered in choosing the best fitting FMM. There is currently no criterion for assessing individual model fit. Instead, models’ fit are compared using various information criteria (IC). And, as was found in the current study, these ICs are frequently contradictory. Thus, the process of identifying the best fitting model cannot rest solely on fit indices but must also depend on interpretation of models and consideration of the ultimate use of the results. In the current study, consideration of transition matrices and the pattern of latent means across classes contributed as much to model selection as fit index interpretation. / text

Objectives: Adherence to psychotropic medication is poor among individuals with bipolar disorder (BD). To understand treatment experiences and associated adherence among these individuals, we developed a novel construct of Clinical Net Benefit (CNB) using psychiatric symptoms, adverse effects and overall functioning assessments. We tested whether adherence differed across classes of CNB, whether individuals transitioned between classes over time, and whether these transitions were differentially associated with adherence. Methods: Data come from individuals aged 18+ during five years of the Systematic Treatment Enhancement Program for Bipolar Disorder (STEP-BD). Latent class analysis identified groups of CNB. Latent transition analysis determined probabilities of transitioning between classes over time. Adherence was defined as taking 75%+ of medications as prescribed. Associations between CNB and adherence were tested using multiple logistic regression adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics. Results: Five classes of CNB were identified during the first two years (high, moderately high, moderate, moderately low, low), and four classes (removing moderately high) during the last three years. Adherence did not differ across classes or time points. Medication regimens differed by class; those with higher CNB taking fewer medications had lower odds of adherence while those with lower CNB taking more medications had higher odds of adherence compared with monotherapy. Probability of transitioning from higher to lower CNB, and lower to higher CNB was greatest over time. Conclusions: CNB is heterogeneous in individuals treated for BD, and movement between classes is not uncommon. Understanding why individuals adhere despite suboptimal CNB may provide novel insights into aspects influencing adherence.