This thesis examines how stakeholder values should be clarified in consensus-based processes in order to provide the framework for the generation of options, the collection of technical information and the assessment of options. The specific context is forest land use planning in British Columbia, particularly with respect to creating protected areas. A case study approach was used. The case study used was the Clayoquot Sound Sustainable Development Strategy Committee planning process (begun in January 1991). This particular case study was chosen because it was the first effort to use negotiations to provide advice to the provincial government on a regional sustainable development issue. It was also highly contentious and very public, therefore it is reasonably well-documented. One of the major flaws in how options were generated and assessed in this process was that insufficient time was spent clarifying stakeholders' values and underlying interests. This had repercussions throughout the negotiations. The problem was not well-defined and this meant it was difficult to generate options that met stakeholders' objectives. Option generation was hasty and was rooted in the status quo. In addition, technical information was collected at the beginning of the process, before objectives were clarified or options generated. This meant there was not a clear idea of how the information would be used to support the decision-making, and resulted in reports heavily loaded with descriptive information. Assessing the options generated was also subject to flaws: the first was that the analysis was based on values that were largely implicit and came primarily from technical experts. The second was that the status quo (the current state of conditions) was used to assess the impacts of proposed options. This led to the consistent overestimate of jobs losses caused by the reduction in harvest level associated with withdrawal of forest land from the commercial land base. Despite these difficulties, this process greatly increased stakeholders' understanding of both the technical issues involved and the difficulties of governing. The social learning aspect of the process is an important legacy and may make future decision-making processes in the area easier. However, improvements in the generation and assessment of options are needed to improve negotiations. Importantly, the problem needs to be well-defined and well-structured. To achieve this, the objectives hierarchy approach is promoted here. It is relatively simple to use in practice, and forces stakeholders' to examine their values and underlying interests. This means that they are more able to generate options that. meet these. interests (rather than their well-entrenched positions). To help move beyond the status quo to create imaginative options, it also useful to ask stakeholders to think about how to achieve their objectives. Once objectives have been clarified and imaginative options have been generated, then the technical information required to assess options can be identified and collected. This leads to the collection of more functional, and less descriptive, information which will be more useful to inform the decision-making. When assessing options, uncertainty in the data, and implicit judgments by technical experts should be made explicit and bounded with probabilities. This improves confidence in the data. Lastly, the base case, which incorporates current trends and is a more reliable predictor of future conditions than the status quo, should be used as a basis for comparing options. It is especially important to consider the effects of declining rates of employment due to mechanization and the fall-down effect in the base case scenario, in order to get a more realistic estimate of the true jobs losses due to reduced harvests, with and without land withdrawals.

This thesis examines how stakeholder values should be clarified in consensus-based processes in order to provide the framework for the generation of options, the collection of technical information and the assessment of options. The specific context is forest land use planning in British Columbia, particularly with respect to creating protected areas. A case study approach was used. The case study used was the Clayoquot Sound Sustainable Development Strategy Committee planning process (begun in January 1991). This particular case study was chosen because it was the first effort to use negotiations to provide advice to the provincial government on a regional sustainable development issue. It was also highly contentious and very public, therefore it is reasonably well-documented. One of the major flaws in how options were generated and assessed in this process was that insufficient time was spent clarifying stakeholders' values and underlying interests. This had repercussions throughout the negotiations. The problem was not well-defined and this meant it was difficult to generate options that met stakeholders' objectives. Option generation was hasty and was rooted in the status quo. In addition, technical information was collected at the beginning of the process, before objectives were clarified or options generated. This meant there was not a clear idea of how the information would be used to support the decision-making, and resulted in reports heavily loaded with descriptive information. Assessing the options generated was also subject to flaws: the first was that the analysis was based on values that were largely implicit and came primarily from technical experts. The second was that the status quo (the current state of conditions) was used to assess the impacts of proposed options. This led to the consistent overestimate of jobs losses caused by the reduction in harvest level associated with withdrawal of forest land from the commercial land base. Despite these difficulties, this process greatly increased stakeholders' understanding of both the technical issues involved and the difficulties of governing. The social learning aspect of the process is an important legacy and may make future decision-making processes in the area easier. However, improvements in the generation and assessment of options are needed to improve negotiations. Importantly, the problem needs to be well-defined and well-structured. To achieve this, the objectives hierarchy approach is promoted here. It is relatively simple to use in practice, and forces stakeholders' to examine their values and underlying interests. This means that they are more able to generate options that. meet these. interests (rather than their well-entrenched positions). To help move beyond the status quo to create imaginative options, it also useful to ask stakeholders to think about how to achieve their objectives. Once objectives have been clarified and imaginative options have been generated, then the technical information required to assess options can be identified and collected. This leads to the collection of more functional, and less descriptive, information which will be more useful to inform the decision-making. When assessing options, uncertainty in the data, and implicit judgments by technical experts should be made explicit and bounded with probabilities. This improves confidence in the data. Lastly, the base case, which incorporates current trends and is a more reliable predictor of future conditions than the status quo, should be used as a basis for comparing options. It is especially important to consider the effects of declining rates of employment due to mechanization and the fall-down effect in the base case scenario, in order to get a more realistic estimate of the true jobs losses due to reduced harvests, with and without land withdrawals. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

This thesis surveys the long human history of Hot Springs Cove, British Columbia, a small inlet on the west coast of Vancouver Island (formerly known as Refuge Cove). The study spans the period from the arrival of the earliest indigenous inhabitants, at about 10,000 years ago, to the present day, and draws upon archeological research, archival documents, other local histories, and ethnographic studies of Nuu-chah-nulth society, as well as some original interviews with contemporary users and inhabitants of the area. Geographically, the study focuses primarily on the immediate vicinity of the Cove, and the territory of its traditional inhabitants, the Manhousaht. However, the lens of analysis is widened very regularly to encompass the larger region of Clayoquot and Nootka Sounds, bringing in the perspectives and experiences of neighbouring groups such as the Hesquiaht, Ahousaht and Tla-o-qui-aht, as well as non-indigenous settlers in communities like Tofino. Periodically, the lens pulls away still further, to examine influential national and global trends. This thesis has two key objectives. First, it aims to be a comprehensive, academically-sound survey of a place rich in history but only mentioned intermittently in other sources. The hybridization of micro-historical techniques and a local history approach is intended to ensure adequate contextualization and analysis, while also preserving rich and engaging detail. Engagement, it must be said, is the other key goal. From the outset, the author has aimed to create a publicly-accessible work of public history intended to be read by a wide audience who, it is hoped, will learn much about the experiences and impact of colonization on the West Coast. To maximize this learning, four broad didactic themes are traced throughout the narrative. Exploring ‘perceptions of place’, this thesis illustrates how differing worldviews led the Nuu-chah-nulth and Euro-Canadian settlers to interact very differently with the same landscape. By tracing changes in ‘human-environment interaction’, this study aims to shed light on the destructive pattern of repeated resource-overexploitation that emerged post-contact. Examination of ‘colonization as a process’ lays bare the steady re-conceptualization and re-shaping of the landscape and its inhabitants set in motion by the arrival of Europeans. At the same time, a consistent emphasis on ‘indigenous agency’ is meant to show how the Nuu-chah-nulth actively adapted to, resisted and even re-shaped colonial processes. Ultimately, the recent resurgence in Nuu-chah-nulth political and economic power is interpreted as laying the ground-work for a profound reshaping of local dynamics in the coming years. Broadly speaking, this thesis argues that the history of human settlement, colonization and interaction that occurred in and around Hot Springs Cove can serve as an informative microcosm of the larger forces, events, and patterns that shaped the entire region. It concludes with the author’s appeal for his neighbours – both indigenous and non – to seek to better understand each other’s history, reckon with the profound impacts of colonization, and work towards reconciliation and co-existence in a way that will preserve the area’s irreplaceable uniqueness. / Graduate

A small number of eastern north Pacific gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus), known as the Pacific Coastal Feeding Group (PCFG) forage during the summer months in the coastal waters between California and Alaska. Although several studies have analyzed the population structure of the PCFG, maternal learning and predator/prey dynamics have not been studied in detail. In this study I characterize fine scale habitat use and site fidelity of eastern north Pacific gray whales in one foraging site within the PCFG’s foraging range. I approach this study by examining site fidelity to Clayoquot Sound in increasing detail at different time scales. Using the variability recorded in 17 field seasons of whale census surveys (1997-2013) as a proxy for fluctuations in prey, I suggest that the combination of physical properties of the study area and the life history characteristics of the primary prey species type enable Clayoquot Sound to persist as a foraging site through time. The analysis of photographic identification data collected between 1998-2013 indicates that Clayoquot Sound is one site within a larger foraging range, and that annual fluctuations in prey density are related to site fidelity and residency time. By identifying cow/calf pairs using photographic identification data collected between 1998-2013 I characterize internal recruitment via maternal learning within Clayoquot Sound. A calf’s site fidelity is related to its mother’s site fidelity, but its residency time is related to annual fluctuations in prey density. In contrast, a cow’s residency time is not related to changes in prey, but increases in duration when accompanied by a calf. The interplay between fluctuations in prey productivity, and the age and gender of individuals, are the variables that most likely influence the distribution of PCFG whales intra- and inter-annually. / Graduate / 0306

Our world is experiencing a crisis of unsustainability with ecological, socioeconomic, and existential dimensions. Thus, planning for the transition to sustainability is a challenge requiring transformation of the dorrunant cultural paradigm. I address this problem of planning between cultural paradigms by examining the discourse between First Nations Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) and Western Science, and identify lessons that contribute to a sounder epistemological basis for planning theory and practice. To link planning theory, sustainability and TEK, I combined literature reviews, interviews and lessons from my experience with First Nations. I derived a cross-cultural analytical framework based on epistemology, cosmology and ontology (ECO), and applied it to planning theory, case studies of the Scientific Panel for Sustainable Forest Practices in Clayoquot Sound and my own professional work. Planning for sustainability must address multiple dimensions. My approach includes biophysical, social and cultural capital, postulating that greater social and cultural capital could decrease consumption of biophysical capital. In this framework "ECO" addresses cultural capital. My analysis of TEK reveals more than just "knowledge," rather a way of life which generates knowledge. I coined the term TEK-Systems (TEKS) to refer to the social and cultural capital, and methodological features of these lotowledge-generating systems. Applying ECO reveals philosophical elements of TEK, that are neglected in the literature. TEKS combine empirical knowledge with other ways of knowing offering alternative models of reality to the cultural mainstream. The Scientific Panel recognized all significant features of TEKS and ECO in my framework, and employed Nuu-Chah-Nulth TEK protocol in their planning model. Various forms of knowledge from wholly different philosophical origins informed complex planning and decision- making process with consensus outcomes. Similarly, the most significant lessons from my professional application was that respect, cultural framing, and community involvement are key professional tools. Planning between cultural paradigms requires recognizing different knowledge systems; including different ways of knowing strengthens planning for sustainability. This approach establishes new terrain for planning theory. It requires inclusive planning and decision- making processes which foster caring, respect and commitment. Enhancing social and cultural capital provides community and spiritual resources for sustainability. Planners need specialized framing to work in these areas.

In the context of a deepening environmental crisis, there are growing calls for a planning framework informed by environmental ethics. In response, I locate this research in the ecocentric discourse and argue the need to challenge both ecological destruction and patriarchy. I raise feminist concerns about the marginalization of women from the processes by which we come to understand and respond to environmental concerns, and adopt a feminist methodology, qualitative methods, and a case study strategy to explore the subjective dimension of women's environmental activism in the context of growing concerns about the forests of Clayoquot Sound, British Columbia. The purpose of this research is to identify: (a) the critical insights that these women bring to their activism; (b) the patriarchal barriers they face in the course of their activism; and (c) the implications of the research findings for an action-oriented ecofeminism and ethics-based planning for sustainability. In-depth interviews were conducted with 20 women and their feedback (transcripts, workshop, draft research findings) incorporated into the final report. The research findings confirm that these women have critical insights to offer and that patriarchal barriers frustrate but do not totally constrain their activism. These women offer insight into the complex set of values and structures that protect the status quo, and the forest industry in particular, expose patriarchal structures and values that constrain their activism and protect the interests of a male-dominated industry, and suggest a normative foundation for sustainability that takes seriously the well-being of human and nonhuman nature, male and female. In analysing these findings, I argue for an action-based ecofeminism that moves beyond ideal notions of the ecological self, promotes a public ethic of care, challenges both constructs and structures, and critically supports the emergence of women's insights and contributions from the economic, political, and cultural margins. Furthermore, I argue that these women's insights and experiences have significant substantive and procedural implications for planning. I propose an ethics-based planning framework committed to the ecological and social integrity of 'place' and to the well-being of all who live there—human and nonhuman, male and female. In challenging the status quo, this ethics-based planning involves struggles with both external structures and internally held values. In doing so, it links the political to the personal and contributes to both structural and personal transformation.

In this study, I document the steps taken to develop and apply a Bayesian belief network (BBN) model for identifying the probable black bear intertidal habitat quality of Clayoquot Sound, British Columbia. Initial model outputs provide a narrow range of probability values, resulting in three high quality intertidal habitat classes applied to the study area. Day-time, summer observations of bear intertidal utilization improve previous knowledge of bear behaviour and highlight preferred resources and habitat characteristics, along coastal margins. Black bear encounter rates are calculated for the individual and some combinations of the key environmental variables used within the model. Bear encounter rates increase with higher probability class. A revised BBN model is implemented through systematic methods applied to the comparison of the initial model conditional probability tables and black bear encounter rates. This final model improves the discrimination of intertidal habitats resulting in four classes. The range of probability values increases as do the encounter rates with successive higher probability classes. Future recommendations for improvements are presented.

Graduate

In the context of a deepening environmental crisis, there are growing calls for a planning framework informed by environmental ethics. In response, I locate this research in the ecocentric discourse and argue the need to challenge both ecological destruction and patriarchy. I raise feminist concerns about the marginalization of women from the processes by which we come to understand and respond to environmental concerns, and adopt a feminist methodology, qualitative methods, and a case study strategy to explore the subjective dimension of women's environmental activism in the context of growing concerns about the forests of Clayoquot Sound, British Columbia. The purpose of this research is to identify: (a) the critical insights that these women bring to their activism; (b) the patriarchal barriers they face in the course of their activism; and (c) the implications of the research findings for an action-oriented ecofeminism and ethics-based planning for sustainability. In-depth interviews were conducted with 20 women and their feedback (transcripts, workshop, draft research findings) incorporated into the final report. The research findings confirm that these women have critical insights to offer and that patriarchal barriers frustrate but do not totally constrain their activism. These women offer insight into the complex set of values and structures that protect the status quo, and the forest industry in particular, expose patriarchal structures and values that constrain their activism and protect the interests of a male-dominated industry, and suggest a normative foundation for sustainability that takes seriously the well-being of human and nonhuman nature, male and female. In analysing these findings, I argue for an action-based ecofeminism that moves beyond ideal notions of the ecological self, promotes a public ethic of care, challenges both constructs and structures, and critically supports the emergence of women's insights and contributions from the economic, political, and cultural margins. Furthermore, I argue that these women's insights and experiences have significant substantive and procedural implications for planning. I propose an ethics-based planning framework committed to the ecological and social integrity of 'place' and to the well-being of all who live there—human and nonhuman, male and female. In challenging the status quo, this ethics-based planning involves struggles with both external structures and internally held values. In doing so, it links the political to the personal and contributes to both structural and personal transformation. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

Our world is experiencing a crisis of unsustainability with ecological, socioeconomic, and existential dimensions. Thus, planning for the transition to sustainability is a challenge requiring transformation of the dorrunant cultural paradigm. I address this problem of planning between cultural paradigms by examining the discourse between First Nations Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) and Western Science, and identify lessons that contribute to a sounder epistemological basis for planning theory and practice. To link planning theory, sustainability and TEK, I combined literature reviews, interviews and lessons from my experience with First Nations. I derived a cross-cultural analytical framework based on epistemology, cosmology and ontology (ECO), and applied it to planning theory, case studies of the Scientific Panel for Sustainable Forest Practices in Clayoquot Sound and my own professional work. Planning for sustainability must address multiple dimensions. My approach includes biophysical, social and cultural capital, postulating that greater social and cultural capital could decrease consumption of biophysical capital. In this framework "ECO" addresses cultural capital. My analysis of TEK reveals more than just "knowledge," rather a way of life which generates knowledge. I coined the term TEK-Systems (TEKS) to refer to the social and cultural capital, and methodological features of these lotowledge-generating systems. Applying ECO reveals philosophical elements of TEK, that are neglected in the literature. TEKS combine empirical knowledge with other ways of knowing offering alternative models of reality to the cultural mainstream. The Scientific Panel recognized all significant features of TEKS and ECO in my framework, and employed Nuu-Chah-Nulth TEK protocol in their planning model. Various forms of knowledge from wholly different philosophical origins informed complex planning and decision- making process with consensus outcomes. Similarly, the most significant lessons from my professional application was that respect, cultural framing, and community involvement are key professional tools. Planning between cultural paradigms requires recognizing different knowledge systems; including different ways of knowing strengthens planning for sustainability. This approach establishes new terrain for planning theory. It requires inclusive planning and decision- making processes which foster caring, respect and commitment. Enhancing social and cultural capital provides community and spiritual resources for sustainability. Planners need specialized framing to work in these areas. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate