Approaches to projects and development have undergone considerable change in the last decade with significant policy shifts on governance, gender, poverty eradication, and environmental issues. Most recently this has led to the adoption and promotion of the sustainable livelihood (SL) approach. The adoption of the SL approach presents challenges to development interventions including: the future of projects and programmes, and sector wide approaches (SWAPs) and direct budgetary support. This paper `A livelihoods-grounded audit of the Sustainable Coastal Livelihoods Programme (SCLP)¿ is the twelfth in the series of project working papers. / Department for International Development

Bangladesh, a country situated in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna delta (GBM), is one of the most vulnerable countries to climatic stressors and changes. Low lying coastal region in the southern part of the country is highly vulnerable due to its exposure to frequent and intense cyclones, and other hydro-meteorological coastal hazards, such as projected sea-level rise, storm surges, monsoonal flooding and waterlogging, and saline water intrusion. In addition, there have been significant infrastructure development and land use change across Bangladesh’s coastal regions since the 1960s that contributed to increase environmental risk and vulnerability of coastal communities. This dissertation examines the risks and vulnerabilities faced by the coastal communities, particularly small-scale fisheries and aquaculture-based communities, in Bangladesh and how the households and the government respond to manage these risks and vulnerabilities. Three specific objectives of this dissertation are: a) to explore the risk and vulnerability that coastal households face in Bangladesh in conjunction with main climatic hazards and changes; b) to understand households' temporary internal migration decision-making in the context of climatic stressors and socio-ecological changes; and c) to explore the extent to which social protection programs in the coastal districts of Bangladesh are responsive to environmental and climatic changes facing coastal dwellers, with a focus on whether such programs help households build adaptive capacity. This research is primarily based on a fieldwork in three coastal districts of Bangladesh in 2017. During the fieldwork, the researcher conducted a household survey of 720 households, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. The three research objectives lead to three research papers. The first paper of this dissertation constructs household-level vulnerability and risk indices by applying the risk framework offered in the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). With the help of these indices, this paper shows the levels of risk of hazards vary among geographical units, income levels and occupational groups. The indices also show that although vulnerability is well-correlated with poverty, risks of hazards are high for upper-income households as well. Applying the New Economics of Labour Migration (NELM) theory and the more recent environmental migration framework proposed by Black et al. (2011), the second paper shows that various types of environmental and climatic stressors impact households’ decisions on temporary migration differently, and alongside environmental and climatic factors, traditional socioeconomic drivers of migration also play significant roles in households’ temporary migration decisions. The third paper applies the adaptive social protection framework and finds poor targeting efficiency and the inability of the social protection system in scaling up when needed. However, the analysis does show poor households benefiting from social protection programs were less likely to use adverse coping strategies and were more likely to adopt productive livelihood strategies including production innovations and diversification. This dissertation contributes to the methods of measuring and understanding risk and vulnerability specific to stressors, locations, income levels and occupations. It also sheds light on the importance of temporary migration as a risk management strategy that received less attention in the literature than permanent migration. Finally, it identifies areas to improve existing social protection programs to make them responsive to emerging risks and vulnerabilities. While addressing three separate but related topics, the papers are consistent in their implication for adaptation planning for coastal communities.

Small-scale fishing communities along Cambodia’s coast have relied on marine resources as a mainstay of their livelihood for decades. However, in the last ten to fifteen years, a confluence of shocks such as increased fishing pressure, the rapid rise of commercial fisheries in the Gulf of Thailand, illegal, underreported and unregulated fishing, climate change and, more recently, sand mining, have contributed to a progressive decline in catch. Such challenges demand that fishers harness social traits of adaptability, responsiveness, persistence, planning, inter alia. In other words, there is a need for fishers and their households to demonstrate resilience in the face of such challenges. Though a contested term, scholars working within human-environment relations have adopted the concept of social-ecological resilience, acknowledging that the social aspects of resilience have been relatively under-addressed. Relatedly, studies on fishers and fishing communities have shown the important contribution fishing plays in fulfilling social and psychological needs, i.e. wellbeing, and how fishing is more than ‘just’ a livelihood. While evidence for this connection between fishing and wellbeing has been shown across different regions, the nature of this relationship is not as clear for coastal communities in Cambodia. Meanwhile, Cambodia has exhibited rapid economic growth (and foreign direct investment) over the past decade. Part of this has been through the creation of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) across the country. The creation of the SEZs and thus, the resultant labour demand has catalyzed migration of Cambodians to secondary cities and to the capital, Phnom Penh. Unlike other parts of the country, the experience of the lives of people on the move from the coastal regions of Cambodia remains less understood. Through qualitative work done among three coastal fishing villages in Koh Kong province in southwest Cambodia, I aim to contribute to a better understanding of the social dimensions of resilience by using a multidimensional (material, subjective, and relational) social wellbeing framework to not only better understand how migration affects the wellbeing of those who leave and those who stay, but also the implications on fishing as ‘a way of life’. My research focuses on understanding the role fishing plays, and the degree to which it impacts the wellbeing of fishers and their households in coastal Cambodia, in the context of migration. My empirical findings problematize the notion that fishing as a way of life supplants other dimensions (e.g. material/income) as observed elsewhere by considering outmigration of villagers from the fishing village. I find that the draw of alternative economic opportunities outside the coastal village has resulted in shifting values and opinions towards fishing as a livelihood particularly by younger villagers and has catalyzed their out migration. As a livelihood strategy, migration plays a crucial role in supplementing income from fishing and, in some cases, forms a critical lifeline for the poorest households. I also show how life in the coastal fishing village is filled with trade-offs and difficult choices people must navigate and negotiate, including tensions between various aspects within subjective dimensions of wellbeing. My thesis reveals the important, and sometimes dominant, influence of subjective and psycho-social factors on coastal villagers’ resilience and how this changes the way some view fishing itself. As such this research shows that adopting a social wellbeing lens can not only result in a better understanding of the impact of migration on coastal fishing communities in Cambodia but also broaden understanding of social resilience, for villagers and migrants who are facing a sea of environmental and economic change.

Cette recherche a porté sur quelques enjeux importants liés à la gestion des aires marines protégées (AMP) en Indonésie en examinant comment celles-ci sont en mesure d'adapter leurs politiques afin de mieux répondre à l'évolution des conditions socioéconomiques et écologiques, quels ont été les impacts socioéconomiques de ces aires, et quelles sont les préoccupations environnementales des acteurs locaux dont les moyens de subsistance dépendent des ressources règlementées. Le «livelihoods framework » a servi de guide pour notre analyse des changements socioéconomiques dans la région, tandis que la notion d’« environmentality » d’Agrawal a fourni les bases théoriques pour l'examen de la formation de sujets environnementaux au parc national de Karimunjawa. Cette étude a montré que les changements de politique apportés au plan de la gestion du parc sont un pas dans la bonne direction, mais que les objectifs importants liés sa cogestion n'ont jamais été entièrement réalisés dans la pratique. Les résultats montrent également que d'importants changements socioéconomiques surviennent dans le parc, de nombreux pêcheurs se tournent vers des moyens de subsistance alternatifs, afin de compenser la baisse des prises de poissons. Enfin, cette étude a révélé que d'importants changements positifs dans les préoccupations environnementales sont survenus depuis la modification du zonage du parc, mais que ceux-ci ne se sont pas entièrement traduits en conformité avec les règles et règlements de l'AMP. / This research examined a few important issues related to marine protected area (MPA) management in Indonesia by looking at how MPAs are able to adapt their policies in order to better suit evolving socioeconomic and ecological conditions, what socioeconomic impacts have been felt as a result of MPA implementation, and what are the environmental subjectivities of local actors whose livelihoods are dependent on the resources that are being regulated. The livelihoods framework served as a guide when examining local socioeconomic changes in the region, while Agrawal’s concept of environmentality provided the theoretical underpinnings when examining the formation of environmental subjects in Karimunjawa National Park. This study found that the policy changes brought about in KNP’s reworked management plan are a step in the right direction, but that important goals related to park co-management were never fully realized in practice. The results also show that significant socioeconomic changes are occurring within the park, with many fishermen turning to alternative livelihoods in order to offset declining fish catches. Lastly, this study uncovered that significant positive shifts in environmental subjectivities have occurred since the re-zoning of the park, but that these have not fully translated into compliance towards the rules and regulations of the MPA.

Cette recherche a porté sur quelques enjeux importants liés à la gestion des aires marines protégées (AMP) en Indonésie en examinant comment celles-ci sont en mesure d'adapter leurs politiques afin de mieux répondre à l'évolution des conditions socioéconomiques et écologiques, quels ont été les impacts socioéconomiques de ces aires, et quelles sont les préoccupations environnementales des acteurs locaux dont les moyens de subsistance dépendent des ressources règlementées. Le «livelihoods framework » a servi de guide pour notre analyse des changements socioéconomiques dans la région, tandis que la notion d’« environmentality » d’Agrawal a fourni les bases théoriques pour l'examen de la formation de sujets environnementaux au parc national de Karimunjawa. Cette étude a montré que les changements de politique apportés au plan de la gestion du parc sont un pas dans la bonne direction, mais que les objectifs importants liés sa cogestion n'ont jamais été entièrement réalisés dans la pratique. Les résultats montrent également que d'importants changements socioéconomiques surviennent dans le parc, de nombreux pêcheurs se tournent vers des moyens de subsistance alternatifs, afin de compenser la baisse des prises de poissons. Enfin, cette étude a révélé que d'importants changements positifs dans les préoccupations environnementales sont survenus depuis la modification du zonage du parc, mais que ceux-ci ne se sont pas entièrement traduits en conformité avec les règles et règlements de l'AMP. / This research examined a few important issues related to marine protected area (MPA) management in Indonesia by looking at how MPAs are able to adapt their policies in order to better suit evolving socioeconomic and ecological conditions, what socioeconomic impacts have been felt as a result of MPA implementation, and what are the environmental subjectivities of local actors whose livelihoods are dependent on the resources that are being regulated. The livelihoods framework served as a guide when examining local socioeconomic changes in the region, while Agrawal’s concept of environmentality provided the theoretical underpinnings when examining the formation of environmental subjects in Karimunjawa National Park. This study found that the policy changes brought about in KNP’s reworked management plan are a step in the right direction, but that important goals related to park co-management were never fully realized in practice. The results also show that significant socioeconomic changes are occurring within the park, with many fishermen turning to alternative livelihoods in order to offset declining fish catches. Lastly, this study uncovered that significant positive shifts in environmental subjectivities have occurred since the re-zoning of the park, but that these have not fully translated into compliance towards the rules and regulations of the MPA.