This thesis presents the results from in-plane cyclic testing of a reinforced cob wall. Cob is an earthen building material composed of sand, clay, straw and water. Cob is typically constructed with no steel reinforcement; however, the California Building Code requires reinforcement in all buildings for resisting seismic forces. The purpose of this thesis is to provide additional technical data to integrate cob into the building code. Test results are reported for a 7’ x 8’ x 14” wall with two layers of welded wire steel reinforcement constructed on a reinforced concrete foundation. In-plane cyclic loading was performed on the wall up to a maximum displacement of 3.5 in. Compression tests of sixteen 3.5” x 3.5” cubes were conducted to determine the compressive strength and the modulus of elasticity of cob. Results provide observed performance, displacement components, yielding points and seismic response modification factors. A numerical model was developed to conduct a parametric study considering the variation of several material and structural properties. In addition, discussion of material properties and recommendations for future work are included.

Maize (Zea mays L.) is a global food staple and is at risk from infection by the pathogenic fungus Aspergillus flavus L. The ubiquitous, soil-borne fungus causes ear rot of maize and produces the carcinogenic secondary metabolite known as aflatoxin. Aflatoxin B1 is the most potent carcinogenic mycotoxin known, causing hepatocellular carcinoma, along with many other serious health problems such as immunosuppression. Previous studies have shown that maize cob tissue plays an essential role in both facilitating and limiting the spread of the fungal pathogen A. flavus, however, little attention in the literature has been given to the cob. To date, there have not been any studies published describing the metabolome of maize cob tissue. This study assessed three different methods for disruption of maize cob tissue and investigated the global metabolome of maize cob of two resistant (Mp313E and Mp420) and two susceptible (B73 and SC212m) genotypes via liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Three treatments (control, water-inoculated, and fungus-inoculated) and three-time points (3, 9, 15 days after inoculation) were included in the experimental design. For the first time in maize cob, 69 metabolites were identified via the mzCloud online database. Out of them, 28 metabolites showed statistically significant differences in abundance across the treatments. Twenty-two metabolites were identified via Fragment Ion Search, of which 14 were statistically significant differences in abundance across the treatments. The majority of the metabolites identified where from the phenylpropanoid, linoleic acid, and terpenoid biosynthesis pathways. Thousands of unknown ions were detected, and for 521 compounds the formula could be derived, based on accurate monoisotopic masses. In the targeted metabolomics analysis, the MS3 spectral tree was obtained for zealexin B1 for the first time via a highly induced sample and was subsequently used to identify zealexin B1 in maize cobs (Va35). To date, this work is the sole metabolomic profiling study of maize cob tissue, and it provides insight into constitutive and induced molecular antifungal defenses of resistant and susceptible genotypes. A list of significant fungal-induced metabolites related to the maize-A. flavus defense response was compiled for further targeted metabolomic identification.

The human hand, in building as in art, has left its impression on all the earliest forms of architecture. Its mark has been one of imperfection, variation, and uniqueness, and with these traits the personification of something innately human. This character, instilled into any work, immortalizes the idiosyncrasies descriptive of its creator. Rather than viewed as anachronism, inculcating the human component, "manufactum", into modern design reacquaints us with our own capricious temperaments. As powerful tools of the contemporary world heighten our faculty for exactitude, the prudence remains as to whether and when it is appropriate to do so. / Master of Architecture

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Este trabalho apresenta o estudo, o projeto e a implementaÃÃo de um driver trifÃsico para diodos emissores de luz (LEDs) baseado num conversor com capacitor chaveado (SC â Switched Capacitor), tambÃm conhecido como charge-pump. Uma luminÃria LED com a tecnologia Chip-on-Board (COB), que proporciona uma elevada densidade de potÃncia, à utilizada como carga. Assim como os LEDs, os drivers destes dispositivos devem apresentar uma longa vida Ãtil e um elevado rendimento. A vida Ãtil dos drivers para LEDs à geralmente limitada pelo uso de capacitores eletrolÃticos convencionais. Estes dispositivos apresentam uma vida Ãtil incompatÃvel com a dos LEDs e, por isso, nÃo devem ser utilizados nos seus drivers. AlÃm disso, os drivers para LEDs devem proporcionar uma baixa ondulaÃÃo de corrente nos LEDs, garantindo um baixo flicker percentual e evitando danos à saÃde humana. Diante destes problemas, o conversor trifÃsico SC proposto nÃo utiliza capacitores eletrolÃticos, o que eleva a expectativa de vida Ãtil do driver. O conversor emite um baixo flicker percentual e à capaz de estabilizar a corrente de saÃda sem a necessidade de um controle de malha fechada, o que pode reduzir os custos de projeto. A topologia permite a dimerizaÃÃo dos LEDs atravÃs da variaÃÃo da frequÃncia de comutaÃÃo. Resultados experimentais de um protÃtipo de 216 W sÃo analisados e discutidos para validaÃÃo da proposta. Em condiÃÃes nominais, o conversor apresentou um rendimento global de 91,5%, um fator de potÃncia acima de 0,99 e uma distorÃÃo harmÃnica menor que 5% nas trÃs fases, obedecendo as Classes A e C da norma IEC 61000-3-2:2014. AlÃm disso, foi obtida uma ondulaÃÃo de corrente de alta frequÃncia igual a 16,97% e um flicker percentual de 4,97%, estando de acordo com as recomendaÃÃes da IEEE. A dimerizaÃÃo dos LEDs permitiu a reduÃÃo da potÃncia de saÃda em atà 50%, com rendimento prÃximo a 91%, fator de potÃncia acima de 0,97, distorÃÃo harmÃnica total inferior a 6% para as trÃs fases e flicker percentual menor que 7% para toda a faixa de potÃncia. / This paper presents the study, design and implementation of a three-phase light-emitting diode (LED) driver based on a switched capacitor (SC) converter, also known as charge-pump. A LED lamp with Chip-On-Board (COB) technology, which provides a high power density, is used as load. As the LEDs, drivers of these devices must have a high efficiency and a long useful lifetime, which is usually limited by the use of conventional electrolytic capacitors. These devices have an incompatible lifetime with LEDs and, therefore, they should not be used in their drivers. In addition, the LED drivers should provide a low ripple current in LEDs, which can provide the emission of a low percent flicker. Studies demonstrate that excessive percent flicker may cause damage to human health. Given these problems, the proposed switched capacitor LED driver does not use electrolytic capacitors, which increases the expectative of useful lifetime of the driver. It emits a low percent flicker, which reduces the risks to human health. It can stabilize the output current without the need of a closed-loop control, which may reduce design costs. It allows the LEDs dimming by varying the switching frequency. An experimental prototype rated at 216 W has been developed in order to evaluate the performance of the proposed approach, while results are properly presented and discussed. In nominal conditions, the drive presented an overall efficiency of 91.5%, a power factor greater than 0.99 and a current total harmonic distortion lower than 5% in three phases. The harmonic currents are in accordance with the limits imposed by IEC Standard 61000-3-2:2014 to class A and C equipment. Furthermore, a high frequency current ripple equal to 16.97% and a percent flicker of 4.97% was obtained, which is in accordance with IEEE recommendations. The LEDs dimming allowed the reduction of the output power up to 50%, while the efficiency remained close to 91% and the power factor remained above 0.97. In addition, the total harmonic distortion was below 6% and the percent flicker was lower than 7% for the entire dimming range.

In general, yield reduction in most dryland maize growing areas of South Africa occur because seasonal rainfall distribution is erratic with annual variation that cannot be predicted accurately. Cultivar selection, planting date and plant density are other factors that consistently affect maize yield. Long growing season maize cultivars are higher yielding, particularly under conditions of good moisture and nutrient supply. However, as both moisture and nutrient availability becomes more limiting, yield tends to decline. Short growing season maize cultivars could yield more than long season counterparts because they can maximize the growing season and potentially reach the critical flowering stage before traditional midsummer droughts occur. The short growing season maize cultivars, which have only recently been developed, have traits, which can address the problem of reduced yield, which is ascribed to midsummer drought. There has been no previous effort to evaluate the effects of planting dates and plant densities on yield and yield components of these short and ultra-short growth period maize cultivars. This prompted research in the 2004/05 growing season. One field experiment was conducted at each of two selected areas (Bethlehem&Potchefstroom) in the “Maize Triangle” of South Africa. The aim was to evaluate the response of short and ultra-short growth period maize cultivars to planting dates and plant densities at two localities with distinct environmental conditions. The effects of planting date, plant density and cultivar on yield and yield components were investigated. Both yield and yield components were affected by planting date, plant density and cultivar at both localities. At both localities early and optimum planting dates as well as low and optimum plant densities promoted increases in yield components, which contributed to increased grain yield. As for the cultivars, PAN6017 proved to be the most consistent since it out-performed other cultivars in terms of both vegetative growth, yield components and grain yield at both localities. At both localities, plant height, leaf area index and dry matter yield were affected by both planting date and plant density, with optimum planting date and optimum plant density contributing to highest yield components and yield. PAN 6017 was superior to the other cultivars at all planting dates and plant densities at both localities. In order to make findings from a study such as this applicable to the “Maize Triangle”, more research on short and ultra-short growth period maize cultivars should be conducted over a wider range of locations and seasons. / Dissertation (M Inst Agrar (Agronomy))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Plant Production and Soil Science / M Inst Agrar / unrestricted

No description available.

Šiame darbe yra nagrinėjamos kukurūzų burbuolių ir grūdų fizikinės-mechaninės savybės, jų svarba iškūlimui, valymui bei tolesniam perdirbimui. Literatūros apžvalgoje atlikta kukurūzų burbuolių ir grūdų fizikinių-mechaninių savybių bei grūdo atsistatymo koeficiento mokslinių tyrimų analizė. Eksperimentiniais tyrimais nustatytas kukurūzų grūdų atsistatymo koeficientas. Tirtas kukurūzų burbuolių atsparumas lenkimui, gniuždymui ir radialiniam spaudimui. Atlikti grūdo atskyrimo jėgos nustatymo spaudžiant juos eilutėje specialiu antgaliu tyrimai. Nustatytas vieno grūdo atskyrimo jėgos dydis priklausomai nuo spaudžiamų grūdų eilutėje skaičiaus. Švytuokline daužykle atlikti kuliamos kukurūzo burbuolės, imituojant judėjimą pobūgnio paviršiumi, bandymai. Nustatyta spragilo smūgio impulso dydžio įtaka grūdų atskyrimui nuo šerdies. Taip pat nustatyta spragilo smūgio į burbuolę trukmė ir burbuolės sąlyčio su spragilu trukmės priklausomybė nuo spragilo greičio smūgio metu. Darbą apibendrina 9 išvados, jo pabaigoje pateiktas informacijos šaltinių sąrašas. / Physical-mechanical properties of corn cobs and grain and their influence for the thrashing, cleaning and conversion in this work are discussed. The review of the sciential researches of physical-mechanical properties of corn cobs and grain is done, also the researches of the set-factor of corn grain is reviewed. The results of the researches of the set-factor of corn grain is represented, the resistance for bending, vertical and horizontal compression are done. Researches of corn grain detaching from cob compressing few grains in the line are done and the results are presented. The experiment of the corn cob movement through the gap between the concave and the raspbar in the pendulum striker is made, the continuance of the impact impulse of the raspbar is determinated, also the influence of the strike impulse for the grain detaching from the corn cob is presented. It is also presented the results of the research of the continuance of contact between the corn cob and raspbar depending on the raspbar velocity before the impact. 8 conclusions summarize this work and, finally, the list of references is presented.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering / Wenqiao Yuan / Donghai Wang / Corncobs were used as the feedstock to investigate the effect of operating conditions and crude glycerol (solvent) on bio-oil production. The highest bio-oil yield of 33.8% on the basis of biomass dry weight was obtained at 305°C, 20 min retention time, 10% biomass content, 0.5% catalyst loading. At selected conditions, bio-oil yield based on the total weight of corn cobs and crude glycerol increased to 36.3% as the crude glycerol/corn cobs ratio increased to 5. Furthermore, the optimization of operating conditions was conducted via response surface methodology. A maximum bio-oil yield of 41.3% was obtained at 280°C, 12min, 21% biomass content, and 1.56% catalyst loading. A highest bio-oil carbon content of 74.8% was produced at 340°C with 9% biomass content. A maximum carbon recovery of 25.2% was observed at 280°C, 12min, 21% biomass content, and 1.03% catalyst loading. The effect of biomass ecotype and planting location on bio-oil production were studied on big bluestems. Significant differences were found in the yield and elemental composition of bio-oils produced from big bluestem of different ecotypes and/or planting locations. Generally, the IL ecotype and the Carbondale, IL and Manhattan, KS planting locations gave higher bio-oil yield, which can be attributed to the higher total cellulose and hemicellulose content and/or the higher carbon but lower oxygen contents in these feedstocks. Bio-oil from the IL ecotype also had the highest carbon and lowest oxygen contents, which were not affected by the planting location. In order to better understand the mechanisms of hydrothermal conversion, the interaction effects between cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin in hydrothermal conversion were studied. Positive interaction between cellulose and lignin, but negative interaction between cellulose and hemicellulose were observed. No significant interaction was found between hemicelluose and lignin. Hydrothermal conversion of corncobs, big bluestems, switchgrass, cherry, pecan, pine, hazelnut shell, and their model biomass also were conducted. Bio-oil yield increased as real biomass cellulose and hemicellulose content increased, but an opposite trend was observed for low lignin content model biomass.

Master of Agribusiness / Department of Agricultural Economics / Michael Woolverton / To meet the demand of the 2007 Energy Bill will require a new approach to ethanol production in the United States. The question persists: how can the ethanol industry in the United States produce 21 billion gallons of ethanol from cellulosic sources? This challenge will require changes in the facilities currently manufacturing ethanol, the collection and storage methods to which the Midwestern farmer is accustomed, and a drastic change in farm production practices. Several different methods of cellulosic ethanol production are being examined. One such method is to change the focus from starch based ethanol to ethanol produced by harvest, collection, and manufacture from corn cobs. Research has included surveys, development of economic models, and focus group meetings to determine the feasibility of corn cobs as a viable raw material source for cellulosic ethanol. Findings indicate that: corn cob collection is feasible for the Midwestern farmer. According to the economic models presented in this thesis, Midwestern farmers can benefit economically from the collection of corn cobs. Further, the collection of corn cobs allows for current ethanol plants to be upgraded with new technology without major change in the manufacturing processes. The focus of this research was to determine which method of corn cob collection was preferable for Midwestern corn producers.

Os materiais lignocelulósicos, devido ao seu importante potencial de conversão em açúcares e biocombustíveis, estão sendo extensivamente estudados, nas últimas três décadas. O uso de sabugo de milho como matéria-prima lignocelulósica oferece possibilidades promissoras para a produção de energia renovável. A lignocelulose normalmente consiste em celulose, hemicelulose e lignina. A celulose e a hemicelulose podem ser convertidas em açúcares através de processos químicos ou biológicos, e estes açúcares (principalmente glicose, xilose e arabinose) podem ser fermentados a produtos químicos valiosos como o bioetanol. Na conversão de biomassa em biocombustíveis, o pré-tratamento é o primeiro passo para desestruturar a lignocelulose, deixando-a mais acessível para enzimas que convertem os carboidratos em açúcares fermentescíveis. A tecnologia de extrusão por dupla rosca é comumente usada nas indústrias de polímeros e alimentos, podendo ser um método de pré-tratamento viável, uma vez que possui capacidade de expor a biomassa a uma variedade de condições de cisalhamento sob diferentes temperaturas em um processo de fluxo contínuo, com grande quantidade de sólidos (40-60% em massa). Neste trabalho, foi avaliada a hidrólise enzimática do sabugo de milho pré-tratado em extrusora de dupla rosca para obtenção de açúcares. O pré-tratamento por extrusão, a 115-130°C e 14 rpm (velocidade da dupla rosca), empregou uma relação sólido:líquido de 1:1, onde a fração líquida foi estudada variando-se a relação dos aditivos água e glicerol. O sabugo de milho extrudado, na melhor relação água e glicerol, foi hidrolisado pelo complexo enzimático Cellic CTec2, associado ou não ao Cellic HTec2, empregando-se carga de sólidos de 10%. Na sequência, a dosagem de enzimas e a carga de sólidos foram otimizadas pela metodologia de superfície de resposta (RSM), a fim de se obter elevados valores de conversão de celulose em glicose (y1) e produtividade em glicose (y2). A extrusão do sabugo de milho foi favorecida com o uso de água e glicerol na relação 25:25 (% m/m). O glicerol presente no meio não causou inibição na hidrólise enzimática dispensando a etapa de lavagem dos sólidos. O complexo enzimático comercial Cellic Ctec2 favoreceu a conversão de celulose em glicose. Através da metodologia de análise de superfície de resposta (RSM), foram estabelecidas a dosagem do complexo enzimático comercial Cellic Ctec2 (32 FPU/gmaterial lignocelulósico seco) e a carga de sólidos (17,8% m/m) para maximizar as conversões de celulose em glicose (90,4% m/m) e de hemicelulose em xilose e arabinose (44,0% m/m) e produtividade em glicose (0,69 g/L.h). O rendimento em açúcares totais (323 Kg de glicose e 148 Kg de xilose e arabinose) foi de 471 Kg para cada tonelada de sabugo de milho seco. Nesta condição, as constantes cinéticas para a conversão de celulose em glicose foram: Vmax de 6,00 % (m/m)/h e Km de 22,59 gcelulose/Lsolução. Estes resultados são promissores para obtenção de um hidrolisado de sabugo de milho com elevado teor de monossacarídeos para uso em bioprocessos, de forma sustentável e com mínimo impacto ambiental. / Lignocellulosic materials due to their significant conversion potential in sugars and biofuels have been extensively studied in the last three decades. The use of corn cob as a lignocellulosic feedstock offers promising possibilities for the production of renewable energy. Lignocellulose usually consists of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Cellulose and hemicellulose can be converted into sugars by chemical or biological processes, and these sugars (especially glucose, xylose and arabinose) can be fermented to valuable chemicals such as bioethanol. In the conversion of biomass to biofuels, pretreatment is the first step in de-structuring lignocellulose, making it more accessible to enzymes that convert carbohydrates to fermentable sugars. Twin screw extrusion technology is commonly used in the polymer and food industries, and it may be a viable pretreatment method due to its ability to simultaneously expose biomass to a variety of shear conditions at different temperature in a flow continuous process using large amount of material (40-60% of biomass). In this work, the enzymatic hydrolysis of corn cob was evaluated after its pretreatment in a twin-screw extruder to obtain sugars. Extrusion pretreatment, at 115-130°C and 14 rpm (double screw velocity), employed a solid: liquid ratio of 1: 1, where the liquid fraction was studied by varying the ratio of water and glycerol additives. Extruded corn cob, in the best water and glycerol ratio, was hydrolyzed by the Cellic CTec2 enzymatic complex, associated or not to Cellic HTec2, using 10% solids loading. In the sequence, the dosage of enzymes and the solids loading were optimized by response surface methodology (RSM) to obtain high values of cellulose conversion to glucose (y1), and glucose productivity (y2). The extrusion of corn cob was favored by using water and glycerol in the ratio of 25:25 (% m/m). The glycerol present in the medium did not cause inhibition in the enzymatic hydrolysis dispensing the washing step of the solids. The commercial enzymatic complex Cellic Ctec2 favored the conversion of cellulose to glucose. By the response surface methodology (RSM) were established the dosage of the commercial enzymatic complex Cellic Ctec2 (32 FPU/g dry lignocellulosic material) and solids loading (17.8% m/m) to maximize the conversions of cellulose to glucose (90.4% w/w) and of hemicellulose to xylose and arabinose (44.0% w/w) and glucose productivity (0.69 g/Lh). The yield of total sugars (323 kg of glucose and 148 kg of xylose and arabinose) was 471 kg for each ton of dried corn cob. In this condition, the kinetic constants for the conversion of cellulose to glucose were: Vmax of 6.00% (m/m)/h and Km of 22.59 gcellulose/Lsolution. These results are promising for obtaining a corn cob hydrolysate with high content of monosaccharides to be used in bioprocesses, in a sustainable manner and with minimal environmental impact.