The purpose of this study is to investigate the nature of code switching between Tamazight and Arabic in light of Myers-Scotton's Matrix Frame Model (MLF) (Myers- Scotton, 1993), and the 4-M model of code switching (Myers-Scotton & Jake, 2000). Data come from the very first Libyan Tamazight news broadcast in Libya on May 2, 2011, during the uprising against the Gaddafi regime. I analyzed the broadcast in an attempt to understand the nature and implications of the switching between the two languages in the utterances of the speakers in the video. I also argued that in many ways what many might think of as code switching is actually borrowing. During the Gaddafi era, the government banned the use of Tamazight in formal settings such as the media, work place, and schools. Since the fall of Gaddafi and his regime, the Imazighen (or Berbers) in Libya have sought to present themselves, their language, and their culture as an important part of Libyan culture. Libya's Imazighen are bilingual speakers, a fact that set up the conditions for the switching between Tamazight and Arabic analyzed in this study. Their bilingualism, along with Libyan language policies under Gaddafi, help account for the nature of code switching in the data. This study documents contact phenomena among different languages in Libya. It also facilitates understanding of some of the sociolinguistic changes occurring there as a result of the political changes in the wake of so-called "Arab Spring."

The historical nature of language contact between French and Arabic in Algeria has created a sociolinguistic situation in which French is permeated throughout Algerian society. The prevalence and use of spoken French in Algeria by native speakers of Spoken Algerian Arabic has been a topic of interest to researchers of codeswitching since the 1970s. Studies have been conducted on codeswitching in Algerian media such as television, radio, and music. The hip hop scene has been active in Algeria since the 1980s. Algerian hip hop lyrics contain a multitude of switches into French. This study explores the structural makeup of the codeswitching between French and Spoken Algerian Arabic in Algerian hip hop. These are pattern that have gone heretofore unstudied. The purpose of this study was to utilize Myers-Scotton's MLF and 4-M models in order to analyze the codeswitching between Spoken Algerian Arabic and French found in the lyrics to the hip hop album Kobay by popular Algerian hip hop artist Lotfi Double Kanon. This study had two goals: the first was to document the structural patterns of the codeswitching found in the data. The second goal was to test Myers-Scotton's models and determine whether the patterns found in the data could be predicted by the MLF and 4-M models. In order to accomplish these goals, the lyrics to the album were transcribed, translated, coded and analyzed at the level of the complementizer phrase. The principles of the MLF and 4-M models were used as central tool for analysis. This study demonstrates that the codeswitching found in the lyrics to Kobay follow the principles of the MLF and 4-M models to a great extent. However, three examples of problematic data are presented. This is followed by a discussion on the social and structural implications of these findings.

This dissertation seo out to investigate if use of visually symbolic representations in addition to the more traditional written methods of the key elements 9theme, setting, characterisation) of a short story would support South African ESL learners to grow in their interpretation and appreciation and appreciation of English literary texts. The assertion was that using a multimodal (verbal-visual) transmediated interpretation of the key elements (theme, setting, characterisation)of a short story might afford ESL learners a "deeper reading" (inferential comprehension and appreciation) of a literary text, and that the learners could also be supported to grow in their interpretation and appreciation of English literature. The research findings of the literary analysis project revealed that ESL learners with a "satisfactory" English proficiency can be supported by using transmediation to engage them in rich interpretations of literary genres to realise their interpretations linguistically in written academic eesays. / English Studies / M. A.

This dissertation focused on the study of the Spanish academic language proficiency of novice bilingual teachers during the act of teaching mathematics in elementary grades. Four first year teachers in a large urban school district in central Texas participated in the study. At the time of the study two participants were fully certified and had attended four-year teacher preparation programs. The additional participants had completed all certification requirements including content examinations and the Texas Oral Proficiency Test (TOPT); they were completing their certification requirements through alternative certification programs. The study sought to identify the moments in their teaching of mathematics in Spanish when their instruction broke down, i.e. when they appeared unable to communicate ideas to students, and the reasons for these breakdowns. Findings revealed that the teachers in the study demonstrated linguistic and/or pedagogical breakdowns and that certain factors influenced their knowledge and language competencies. Linguistic breakdowns were manifested when teachers switched to English, used repetitive language when teaching, or provided limited academic language. Pedagogical breakdowns were identified as a lack of: student talk or discussion, effective teacher questioning, or diverse presentation of content. Overall, the teachers struggled with limited language in Spanish and limited pedagogical reasoning skills while teaching mathematical concepts to their students. These limitations were exacerbated by the pressures of high stakes testing and countered by the fact that all four teachers shared linguistic and cultural affiliation with their students. This collective case study was conducted from within a constructivist theoretical framework focusing on theories of academic language, communicative competence, and Vygotsky’s sociocultural perspective of learning. Recommendations for future training and practice of bilingual teachers are provided specifically on the importance of Spanish language proficiency of this group of educators. / text

Thesis (MPhil (General Linguistics))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis investigates whether language shift is occurring within the community of the northern areas of Port Elizabeth. These areas are historically predominantly “coloured” and Afrikaans-speaking, and are mixed in terms of the socioeconomic status of their inhabitants. Lately, there is a tendency for many of the younger generation to speak more English. Using the model of another study (Anthonissen and George 2003) done in the Cape Town area, three generations (grandparent, parent and grandchild) of three families were interviewed regarding their use of English and Afrikaans in various domains. The pattern of language shift in this study differs somewhat, but not totally, from that described in Anthonissen and George (2003) and Farmer (2009). In these two studies, there was a shift from predominantly Afrikaans in the older two generations to English in the youngest generation. In this study, the shift is also almost exclusively to English in the youngest generation, but the shift at times took place from English-Afrikaans bilingualism and not predominantly from Afrikaans. In two cases, the first generation was raised in English but raised their children in Afrikaans, and then the grandchildren were raised in English again. The reasons why the shift took place in the northern areas of Port Elizabeth appears to be similar to the reasons in the Cape Town area, namely perceived better education opportunities and better socio-economic prospects. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In hierdie tesis word daar gepoog om vas te stel of taalverskuiwing besig is om plaas te vind in die gemeensakp van die noordelike areas van Port Elizabeth. Hierdie areas is histories hoofsaaklik “gekleurd” en Afrikaanssprekend, en is gemeng in terme van die sosioekonomiese status van hul inwoners. Dit wil egter voorkom asof daar deesdae ‘n tendens onder die jonger geslag is om meer Engels te praat. Die model van ‘n ander studie (Anthonissen en George 2003), wat in die Kaapstad-area gedoen is, is in hierdie studie gebruik: daar is onderhoude gevoer met drie generasies (grootouer, ouer, kleinkind) van drie families oor hul gebruik van Engels en Afrikaans in verskeie domeine. Die patroon van taalverskuiwing in hierdie studie het verskil van dié wat in die Anthonissen en George (2003)- en Farmer (2009)-studies beskryf is, maar nie heeltemal nie. In laasgenoemde twee studies was daar ‘n verskuiwing van hoofsaaklik Afrikaans in die ouer twee generasies na Engels in die jongste generasie. In hierdie studie is die verskuiwing ook na amper uitsluitlik Engels in die jongste generasie, maar by tye het die verskuiwing plaasgevind vanaf Engels-Afrikaans tweetaligheid en nie vanaf hoofsaaklik Afrikaans nie. In twee gevalle is die eerste generasie Engels grootgemaak maar het hul hul kinders Afrikaans grootgemaak, en dan is die kleinkinders weer Engels grootgemaak. Die redes waarom die verskuiwing plaasgevind het, is dieselfde as die redes wat deur die verskuiwing in die Kaapstad-gemeenskappe aangevoer is, naamlik beter opvoedkundige geleenthede en beter sosio-ekonomiese vooruitsigte.

Thesis (MPhil (General Linguistics))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Code switching is a widely observed phenomenon in multilingual and multicultural communities. This study focuses on code switching by teachers in multilingual and multicultural high school classrooms in a particular district in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa. The aims of this study were to establish whether teachers in the classrooms concerned do code switch and, if so, what the functions thereof are. With these aims in mind, data were collected from four high schools in the Siyanda District, during 13 lessons in total. These lessons were on the subjects Economic Management Sciences, Business Studies and Accounting. The participants in the study were 296 learners in Grades 8 to 12 and eight teachers. Data were collected by means of researcher observations and audio recordings of lessons. These recordings were orthographically transcribed and then analysed in terms of the functions of code switching in educational settings as identified from the existing literature on this topic as well as in terms of the Markedness Model of Myers-Scotton (1993). The answer to the first research question 1, namely whether teachers made use of code switching during classroom interactions was, perhaps unsurprisingly, “yes”. In terms of the second question, namely to which end teachers code switch, it was found that the teachers used code switching mainly for academic purposes (such as explaining and clarifying subject content) but also frequently for social reasons (maintaining social relationships with learners and also for being humorous) as well as for classroom management purposes (such as reprimanding learners). The teachers in this data set never used code switching solely for the purpose of asserting identity. It appears then that the teachers in this study used code switching for the same reasons as those mentioned in other studies on code switching in the educational setting. The study further indicated that code switching by the teachers was mainly an unmarked choice itself, although at times the sequential switch was triggered by a change in addressee. In very few instances was the code switching a marked choice; when it was, the message was the medium (see Myers-Scotton 1993: 138), code switching functioned as a means of increasing the social distance between the teacher and the learners or, in one instance, of demonstrating affection. Teachers code switched regardless of the language policy of their particular school, i.e. code switching occurred even in classrooms in which English is officially the sole medium of instruction. As code switching was largely used in order to support learning, it can be seen as good educational practice. One of the recommendations of this study is therefore that particular modes of code switching should be encouraged in the classrooms, especially where the medium of instruction is the home language of very few of the learners in that school.

Completely couched in and steered by the qualitative research method, this study examines the linguistic constraints on the code-switching of the bilingual Shona-Xhosa speakers in Cape Town. The views of the key research participants obtained through participant observation, interviews and questionnaires were heavily relied on. The motivations for the code-switching of the bilingual Shona-Xhosa speakers in Cape Town were explored in this study, including the Shona-Xhosa interlink. Myers-Scotton‟s Markedness theory was scrutinized to discern the assorted social variables motivating the bilingual speakers to code-switch in Cape Town while the Matrix Language Frame Model was used to determine that Shona is the base language and isiXhosa is the embedded language in the Shona-Xhosa code-switching in Cape Town. Diverse linguistic constraints were examined in the context of the Shona-Xhosa code-switching and their universality was disputed. Similarities between Shona and Xhosa were unearthed and the researcher recommends that further Shona-Xhosa studies be pursued. / African Languages / M.A. (African Languages)

Text in English / The study examines the social motivations that prompt the Rwandan bilingual speakers to code-switch from Kinyarwanda to English, French or Kiswahili in their casual conversations about real-life situations. Methodological techniques used for data collection are ethnographic non-participant observation, oral interviews, focus group discussions and shorthand notes techniques. Examples were examined and interpreted within Myers-Scotton’s Markedness Model as the main theoretical framework for the study. The research findings align with Myers-Scotton’s categories such as the sequential unmarked choice, code-switching itself as the unmarked choice, the marked choice and the exploratory choice respectively. The main social factors that influence code-switching among the Rwandan bilingual speakers were identified as signalling educated status, expressing different social identities, demonstrating measures of power, authority and prestige, narrowing or widening social distance, and maintaining relationships. These results support the hypothesis that code-switching is a strategy to maximise social benefits from the interlocutors in conversation. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / M.A. (Sociolinguistics)

This dissertation seo out to investigate if use of visually symbolic representations in addition to the more traditional written methods of the key elements 9theme, setting, characterisation) of a short story would support South African ESL learners to grow in their interpretation and appreciation and appreciation of English literary texts. The assertion was that using a multimodal (verbal-visual) transmediated interpretation of the key elements (theme, setting, characterisation)of a short story might afford ESL learners a "deeper reading" (inferential comprehension and appreciation) of a literary text, and that the learners could also be supported to grow in their interpretation and appreciation of English literature. The research findings of the literary analysis project revealed that ESL learners with a "satisfactory" English proficiency can be supported by using transmediation to engage them in rich interpretations of literary genres to realise their interpretations linguistically in written academic eesays. / English Studies / M. A.

South Africa is a complex multilingual country. In the majority of schools in the Eastern Cape, a province in South Africa, the teachers and learners share the same home language, isiXhosa, but teach and learn mathematics in English. The purpose of this study was to encourage teachers to use the home language as a resource to teach mathematics in multilingual classes. The study follows a mixed method design, using both qualitative and quantitative data. Qualitative data were collected from a survey and poetry, which teachers crafted, in which they highlighted their perceptions about language in their lives. They also reflected on their practices and submitted pieces of contemplative writing. Quantitative data were collected from participating teachers who administered a pre-test to their learners as well as a post- test approximately nine months later after conducting an intervention. The results showed that where strategies, such as the implementation of exploratory talk and code switching which used language as a resource, had been introduced mathematical reasoning improved and classroom climate became more positive. The learners’ lack of confidence in being able to express their reasoning in English was prevalent throughout the reflective writing. By enabling learners to use isiXhosa in discussions the teachers felt that the learners gained in both confidence and mathematical understanding. This study has demonstrated that using the learners’ and teachers’ home language unlocks doors to communication and spotlights mathematical reasoning, but there is still an urgency to encourage learners to become fluent in Mathematical English. It is important to note that a positive classroom climate is essential for learners to build confidence and to encourage them to attempt to formulate sentences in English - to start on the journey from informal to formal usage of language as advocated by Setati and Adler (2001:250). My main conclusion is that an intervention that develops exploratory talk by using language as a resource can improve learners’ mathematical reasoning. I wish to emphasise that I am not advocating teaching mathematics in isiXhosa only, but the research has shown the advantages of using the home language as a resource together with English in Eastern Cape multilingual mathematics classes. Learners need to be able to express themselves in English, written and spoken, in order to achieve mathematically. This study therefore shows that teachers can gauge their learners’ improvement in mathematical reasoning after an intervention that develops exploratory talk in class by using the home language as a resource.