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This thesis examines the highly interlinked fields of voluntary action, apathy and option generation. Substantial research have now implicated the medial frontal cortex in voluntary actions, but the exact roles of each region remain unclear. Seeking clarity on this is important because the lack of self-generated behaviour is characteristic of apathy, a debilitating condition prevalent in neurodegenerative diseases and occurring to varying degrees in healthy individuals. Unfortunately, the conceptualization of apathy is currently unclear. Proposals of its underlying cognitive mechanisms have also mostly focused on deficits in selecting between options and learning outcomes during feedback. Intriguingly, the possibility that an inability to self-generate options may contribute to apathy has never been examined. This is because neuroscientific research on option generation is sparse. Here, a major contribution was the advancement of our understanding of option generation for behaviour. As there was no suitable objective measure available in the current literature, a simple, quantitative and culture-free task to assess option generation was first developed. The task was then administered to patients with Parkinson‖s disease and utilised in two pharmacological studies of dopamine agonist (cabergoline) and antagonist (haloperidol). These provided the first direct evidence that dopamine modulates option generation for behaviour in humans, specifically in the aspects of fluency (generating many options) and uniqueness (how different each option is from others). The ability to generate options was also found to associate with apathy in the healthy population. Besides that, the multidimensional structure of apathy was examined via the development and rigorous validation of a new questionnaire known as the Apathy Motivation Index. Finally, a functional neuroimaging experiment in healthy individuals revealed that the pre-supplementary motor area plays a key role in planning during volitional decisions of what action to execute. Together, these findings have provided new insights and point to new directions for future work in this field.

Risk factors of the prison environment have been considered from a policy perspective, however little work in the field of neuroscience and neuropsychology has been done to further understand the effects that long-term incarceration have on the brain at a neuronal and cognitive level. Neurocognitive deficits in the older prison inmate population usually go undetected, thus there is a need for the precise characterization of neurocognitive impairment, its course and etiology specifically in the prison population. This study will combine cross sectional and longitudinal analysis to characterize the neurocognitive impairment in the older prison inmate population versus the non-incarcerated population while paying close attention to the effects of poor nutrition, lack of preventative healthcare, and social isolation on the neurocognitive functioning of the older inmate population. Based on previous work, it is hypothesized that lack of preventative healthcare in the prison system results in improper treatment of such health conditions as diabetes and vascular disease, each of which have been shown to increase the chances of dementia diagnosis. In addition, it is hypothesized that prison diets low in polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin B12 and high in saturated fats impair the functioning of brain regions involved in memory consolidation, retrieval and executive functioning, like the hippocampus and the frontal lobe. Furthermore, due to inadequate environmental stimulation, increased levels of anxiety, and unsatisfactory interactions with peers, it is hypothesized that social isolation decreases neurocognitive functioning in the older prison inmate population at a faster rate compared to the non-institutionalized population. Over the course of seven years, I propose that prisoners be administered the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) to measure neurocognitive impairment as well as the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) to measure levels of anxiety and proneness to anxious feelings. In addition, a phlebotomist will draw a sample of blood from each participant in order to measure their levels of saturated fat, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and vitamin B12. In a longitudinal analysis, 400 prisoners will be monitored every other year for seven years. In the cross sectional analysis, 200 prisoners will be matched to 200 non-incarcerated individuals based on age, background and health status in order to determine the effects that poor health and environmental factors have on the neurocognitive functioning of the older inmate population versus the non-incarcerated population. Results from the longitudinal analysis and the cross sectional analysis will be analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA and regression analysis respectively.

Three studies were conducted to examine the effects of a behavioral metacognitive technique on lessening students' illusions of learning. It was proposed that students' study time strategies, and consequently, final performance on a test, in a classroom setting, could be influenced positively by having students engage in metacognitive processing via making wagers regarding their learning. A novel metacognitive paradigm was implemented in three studies during which high school Biology students made prospective (during study, prior to test) metacognitive judgments, using a "betting" paradigm. This behavioral betting paradigm asked students to select either "high confidence" or "low confidence" based on how confident they felt that they would get a Biology concept correct if they were tested later. If a student chose "high confidence" and got the answer right on a later test, then he would gain 3 points. If he chose "high confidence" and got the answer wrong, he would lose 3 points. If a student chose "low confidence," he would gain one point, regardless of accuracy. Students then made study time allocation decisions by choosing whether they needed to study a particular concept "a lot more," "a little more," or "not at all." Afterwards, students had three minutes to study whichever terms they selected for any duration during those three minutes. Finally, a performance test was administered. The results showed that people are generally good at monitoring their own knowledge, in that students performed better on items judged with high confidence bets than on items judged with low confidence bets. Data analyses compared students' Study time Intentions, Actual Study Time, and Accuracy at final test for those who were required to bet versus those who were not. Results showed that students for whom bets were required tended to select relatively longer study than for whom no bets were required. That is, the intentions of those who bet were less overconfident than those who did not bet. However, there were no differences in actual study time or, as one would subsequently expect, in final test performance between the two conditions. The data provide partial evidence of the beneficial effects of directly implementing a non-intrusive metacognitive activity in a classroom setting. Students who completed this prospective bet judgment exhibited, at least, a greater willingness to study. That is, enforcing a betting strategy can increase the deliberative processes of the learner, which in turn can lessen people's illusions of knowing. By encouraging students to deliberate about their own learning, by making prospective bets, students' study time intentions were increased. Thus, it may be helpful to encourage students explicitly to use metacognitive strategies. It was unfortunate that students did not follow through on their intentions sufficiently during actual study, however, and a variety of reasons for this breakdown are discussed. The method used in the current study could potentially benefit students in any classroom setting. Using this non-verbal, behavioral betting paradigm, students are required to engage in metacognitive processes without having to take part in an invasive intervention. The betting paradigm would be easy for teachers to incorporate into their classrooms as it can be incorporated into class work, homework, or even tests and assessments. By asking students to make confidence bets, students may engage in metacognitive processing which they may not have done spontaneously.

Thesis (M. Phil.)--University of Hong Kong, 2007. / Title proper from title frame. Also available in printed format.

Thesis (M.A.)--York University, 2003. / Typescript. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 62-71). Also available on the Internet. MODE OF ACCESS via web browser by entering the following URL:http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url%5Fver=Z39.88-2004&res%5Fdat=xri:pqdiss&rft%5Fval%5Ffmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:dissertation&rft%5Fdat=xri:pqdiss:MQ99273

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Thesis (Ph. D.)--Michigan State University. Dept. of Psychology, 2006. / Title from PDF t.p. (viewed on Nov. 11, 2008) Includes bibliographical references (p. 60-68). Also issued in print.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--George Mason University, 2008. / Vita: p. 78. Thesis director: J. Gregory Trafton. Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology. Title from PDF t.p. (viewed July 3, 2008). Includes bibliographical references (p. 73-77). Also issued in print.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Texas at Austin, 2004. / Supervisor: Harold H. Zakon. Vita. Includes bibliographical references.