There are many different training interventions that can be used in simulation based training systems (e.g., cueing, hinting, highlighting, deliberate practice, etc.). However, the most widely used training intervention in the military is feedback, most often presented in the form of a debrief. With advances in technology, it is possible to measure and diagnose performance in real-time. Thus it is possible to provide immediate feedback during scenarios. However, training systems designers should not consider the timing of feedback in isolation. There are other parameters of feedback that must also be considered which may have an impact on performance. Specifically, feedback content and modality may also have an impact on the appropriate timing of feedback and its’ effectiveness in simulation training environments. Moreno and Mayer (2000) propose a cognitive theory of multimedia learning which describes how instruction is perceived and processed by a trainee. Using this theoretical framework, I investigate the optimal use of feedback while considering the interaction of feedback timing, content, and modality in scenario-based training environments. In order to investigate the relationship between the timing, modality, and content of feedback, a 2 (immediate, delayed) X 2 (visual, auditory) X 2 (process, outcome) betweensubjects design was used (a no feedback control condition was also included). Ninety participants were randomly assigned to the nine experimental groups. These participants performed a visual-spatial military task called the Forward Observer PC-based Simulation. Results indicated that receiving feedback was beneficial to improve performance as compared to receiving no feedback. As hypothesized, during a visual-spatial task, auditory feedback presented during a scenario led to higher performance than visual feedback. Finally, iv while I did not support my hypothesis that an interaction between all three components of feedback would affect performance, it is promising that the pattern of results mirrored the hypothesized pattern. Theoretical and practical implications, as well as limitations of the current study and directions for future research are discussed.

This study was designed to determine if college students perform differently when they are tested more frequently than less frequently. The purpose of this research study was: (a) to determine if there is a difference in achievement between students given weekly tests (experimental group) and students given monthly tests (control group), (b) to determine if there is a difference in knowledge retention between students given weekly tests and students given monthly tests, and (c) to determine if there is a difference in time spent studying between students given weekly tests and students given monthly tests. The research design used was a true experimental form of the posttest-only with control technique. The participants were 109 students taking Principles of Marketing at Concord College in Athens, West Virginia. Fifty were enrolled in the fall of 1996, and the study was replicated with 59 students who were enrolled in the spring of 1997. Half of each class (fall and spring) was randomly assigned to weekly testing and the other halves were assigned to monthly testing. The weekly and monthly groups were taught simultaneously by the researcher both semesters. To test for differences in achievement between the weekly group and the monthly group, the mean test scores were compared at 80-question intervals. To test for differences in knowledge retention between the weekly group and the monthly group, the mean final exam scores were compared. To test for differences in hours spent studying between the weekly group and the monthly group, the means from the self-reported study hours surveys were compared at 80-question intervals. Based on the results of analysis of covariance, the research showed a significant difference in achievement between the weekly and the monthly groups in favor of the weekly group ( p = .007). However, the difference between the weekly and monthly group final exam scores was not significant ( p = .553), and the difference between the weekly and monthly groups' self-reported study hours was also not significant ( p = .231). / Ph. D.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of web-based instruction (WBI) on cognitive and psychomotor learning. The subjects of the study received two types of instructional methods, WBI (experimental group) and traditional classroom instruction (control group). Each group received 30 minutes of instruction on "Soldering a Circuit Board." The researcher chose this content subject because it involved both cognitive and psychomotor objectives, which suited the purpose of this study. It was hypothesized that there would be no significant difference between the two methods of instruction, and also that there would be no significant interaction effects between methods of instruction and gender. Forty-six subjects from a population of students enrolled in summer classes offered by the Applied Technology, Training and Development (ATTD) program at the University of North Texas voluntarily participated in this study. Random assignment of subjects was applied in this study. A subject matter expert delivered the content for both the experimental and control groups. To measure cognitive variable, a 10 item, multiple-choice test was administered immediately after instruction. To measure the psychomotor variable, a 15-item checklist was utilized by trained judges to evaluate learners’ performances while soldering. The 2 x 2 factorial model with interaction was used in this study. The analysis was run for each of the dependent variables, cognitive and psychomotor learning. Although there was not a statistically significant difference in the main effects of method of instruction or interaction effects between method and gender, the results imply that students in the traditional-classroom instruction group performed better than those in the WBI group in psychomotor learning. Perhaps, this trend would be statistically significant if the sample size were larger. This study provides empirical evidence for the effectiveness of WBI in delivering cognitive and psychomotor objectives. The outcome of this study supports the need for more research on the effects of WBI on learning domains.

The purpose of this project examined the role of motivation on literacy, through a specific method of teaching called Concept Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI). The CORI program is designed to encourage reading motivation and comprehension through thematic teaching strategies designed around science concepts.

The purpose of this project was to develop a teacher friendly guide that would help teachers not only apply brain-based strategies in the classroom, but also to see results from transforming their classrooms into brain-based learning environments.

Thesis (MA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The construction of macro-structures. Four reading-improvement courses were offered to grade ten pupils in an attempt to improve their general reading skills and more specifically their ability to abstract the gist (macrostructure - Van Dijk and Kintsch, 1983) of texts as well as their ability to recall detail about texts. The macro-structures that learners constructed and the number of propositions recalled from a specific section of the text during a pre-test were compared to the macrostructures they formulated and the number of propositions that they recalled during a post-test. The courses were presented in Afrikaans to four of the five grade 10 classes in a Western Cape school. (The course was also presented in English to the fifth class but that course was not taken into consideration.) The courses were conducted over eight periods of approximately 40 minutes. The content of the first three periods were the same for all four courses. During the first period the learners did a reading exercise in order to determine their reading speed and reading index. During the second and third periods they were taught skimming and study skills respectively. The first course focused on questioning skills in the last five sessions. The second course was presented in order to improve learners' structuring skills. The third course was a combination of the first two courses. A conventional speed reading course was presented to learners who did the fourth course. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine whether (1) the construction of macro-structures and (2) the recall of propositions from the texts could be ascribed to questioning skills, structuring skills or the combination of those skills. This was done after variance in the dependant variables brought about by differences in intelligence was controlled statistically. The results of this study indicate a statistically significant improvement to construct macro-structures for the learners who completed the courses aimed at improving structuring and questioning/structuring abilities. This improvement can be ascribed to the skills that they acquired during the courses. Traditional schema theories regard schemas or schemata as pre-fabricated structures that need only to be activated by readers. In these courses, however the emphasis was placed on the formation of a structure by the reader; on the activity performed by the reader. Hence it was referred to as a structuring course. During the courses the learners were encouraged not only to "chunk" the content of the texts, but to generalize and to construct the structure of the texts. They were encouraged to use their own words or categories. Several studies indicated that an improvement in the ability to structure texts lead to an improvement in text comprehension. There are five other reasons why structuring the content of texts will facilitate the construction of macro-structures. The first is that when subjects are given the task to remember unorganized material they structure the material to be remembered spontaneously. The second is that the semantic organization of material facilitate recall and the third that normal perception is highly structured. The fourth argument is that experts make effective use of schemes. The fifth argument is that the activity of structuring forces the reader to process the text at a deeper level of processmg. Since it was assumed that top achievers are good readers who have mastered the ability to construct macro-structures efficiently, it was argued that they would benefit more from a course that aimed at improving their question-generating skills. Thus, the fact that there was not a statistically significant improvement in their ability to construct macrostructures can be attributed to the fact that they have already mastered that ability sufficiently. It is also possible to attribute the fact that there was not a statistically significant improvement to the fact that they did not master the question-generating activities. The results of this study also indicated that learners who did the structuring, questioning and questioning/structuring courses improved their ability to recall propositions from the texts in a pre-test to a post-test. Their improved ability to recall propositions, can be ascribed to the fact that detail can be inferred from a hierarchical structure since detail facts are subsumed under thematic propositions. Put differently, micro-propositions can be inferred from macro-propositions. The improvement in the ability of subjects who did the questioning course can be ascribed to the fact that questioning helps to focus attention and that the activity of questioning leads to deeper levels of processing. Three assumptions concerning macro-structures were made in this study. It was assumed that the construction of macro-structures is an automatic and integral part of the (normal) reading process. Readers do not construct macro-structures only when they are required to do so. Good readers construct better macro-structures than poor readers. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die konstruksie van makrostrukture. Vier leesverbeteringskursusse is vir graad 10-leerders aangebied ten einde hul leesvaardighede te probeer verbeter; meer spesifiek, hul vermoe om die kern (die makrostrukture - Van Dijk en Kintsch, 1983) van tekste te kan konstrueer en ook om proposisies van die tekste te kan herroep. Die makrostrukture wat leerders gevorrn het en die getal proposisies wat hulle kon herroep oor 'n spesifieke teksgedeelte nadat 'n leeskursus vir hulle aangebied is, is vergelyk met die makrostrukture wat hulle gevorrn het en getal proposisies wat hulle kon herroep, voordat die kursus vir hulle aangebied is. Die kursusse is in Afrikaans aangebied vir vier van die vyf graad 10-klasse van 'n skiereilandse skool. (Die kursus is ook in Engels aangebied vir die vyfde klas, maar hul resultate is nie in berekening gebring nie, aangesien die inhoud van die tekste verskil het.) Die kursusse het bestaan uit agt lesure van 40 minute. Die inhoud van die eerste drie ·lesure was dieselfde vir al vier kursusse. Tydens die eerste lesuur het die leerders 'n leesoefening gedoen en daarna het hulle hul leesspoed en leesindeks uitgewerk. Tydens die tweede en derde lesuur is vlugleesvaardighede vir die leerders aangeleer. In die eerste kursus IS die klem tydens die laaste vyf lesure geplaas op vraagstellingsvaardighede bene wens vlugleesvaardighede en studievaardighede. Leerders is geleer om kemvrae en detailvrae te forrnuleer. Tydens die tweede kursus is struktureringsvaardighede vir leerders aangeleer in die laaste vyf lesure. Die derde kursus was 'n kombinasie van die eerste twee kursusse. Tydens die vierde kursus is 'n konvensionele spoedleeskursus vir die leerders aangebied. Deur middel van meervoudige regressie-ontledings is vasgestel of vraagstelling, strukturering of die interaksie tussen vraagstelling en strukturering variansie in (1) die konstruksie van rnakrostrukture en (2) die herroep van proposisies of feite verklaar. Dit is gedoen nadat daar statisties gekontroleer is vir die variansie in die afhanklike veranderlikes wat opgewek is deur verskille in intelligensie. Uit die resultate het dit geblyk dat daar 'n statisties beduidende verbetering was by die leerders wat die strukturering-kursus gevolg het en ook by die leerders wat die vraagstelling/strukturering-kursus gevolg het om makrostrukture te konstrueer. Hierdie verbetering sou toegeskryf kon word aan die vaardighede wat hulle tydens die kursus aangeleer het. In teenstelling met skema-teoriee wat van die veronderstelling uitgaan dat skemas vaste strukture is wat slegs deur lesers geaktiveer word, is die klem in hierdie ondersoek geplaas op die aktiewe strukturering van teksinhoude. Dit is die rede waarom na die kursus verwys word as die "strukturering' -kursus. Tydens die kursus is die leerders aangemoedig om nie net die afdelings van die tekste te groepeer nie, maar om te veralgemeen; om die teksinhoude self te struktureer deur hul eie woorde te gebruik. Benewens die feit dat dit uit verskeie ander ondersoeke geblyk het dat die strukturering van tekste deur lesers hulle leesbegrip verbeter het en hulle gehelp het om meer proposisies van 'n teks te kon herroep, sou nog vyf ander argumente ook aangevoer word waarom strukturering die vorming van makrostrukture vergemaklik. Die eerste is dat toetslinge ongestruktureerde geheuemateriaal spontaan struktureer; die tweede dat semantiese organisasie die herroep daarvan vergemaklik; die derde dat ("alledaagse") persepsie hoogs gestruktureerd is en die vierde dat deskundiges skemas effektiewer benut as beginners. Die vyfde argument is dat die aktiwiteit van strukturering dieper prosessering van leesinhoude sal meebring as gewoonlees; wanneer lesers tekste struktureer, word hulle verplig om dit uitvoerig te prosesseer. Die vraagstelling-kursus is aangebied vir die leerders in die klas wat die beste presteer het, aangesien daar van die veronderstelling uitgegaan is dat hulle goeie lesers is en dat goeie lesers alreeds daartoe in staat is om goeie makrostrukture te kan konstrueer. Die feit dat diegene wat die vraagstelling-kursus gevolg het, se vermoe om rnakrostrukture te vorm, nie 'n statisties beduidende verbetering getoon het nie, sou dus moontlik daaraan toegeskryf kon word dat hulle die vaardigheid om goeie makrostrukture te vorm, alreeds in 'n groot mate bemeester het. 'n Ander moontlikheid waarom hul vermoe om makrostrukture te konstrueer, nie 'n statisties beduidende verbetering getoon het nie, is dat hulle nie die vraagstelling-aktiwiteite deeglik bemeester het rue. Uit die resultate van hierdie ondersoek het dit ook geblyk -dat daar 'n statisties beduidende verbetering was in die vermoe van leerders wat die vraagstelling-, strukturering-, asook die vraagstellinglstruktureringkursus gevolg het om na afloop van die leeskursusse meer proposisies oor die betrokke tekste te kon herroep. Die rede waarom die strukturering-kursus effektiewer herroepprestasie in die hand gewerk het, sou toegeskryf kon word aan die feit dat iemand wat 'n struktuur gekonstrueer het, detail kan herroep na aanleiding van die gekonstrueerde raarnwerk. Anders gestel, mikroproposisies sou afgelei kon word van makroproposisies. Die rede waarom die vraagstelling-kursus 'n verbetering van leerders se herroepvermoens meegebring het, sou waarskynlik daaraan toegeskryf kon word dat vraagstelling 'n leser se aandag fokus of rig. Daarby verplig die vraagstelling-aktiwiteit lesers om tekste uitvoerig te prosesseer. Hierdie vraagstelling-aktiwiteit verplig dieper prosessering van leesinhoude as die meer oppervlakkige prosessering wat tydens gewoonlees plaasvind. In hierdie ondersoek is van die verondersteIling uitgegaan dat die vorrmng van makrostrukture 'n outomatiese en integrale deel van die leesproses is. Lesers konstrueer nie net makrostrukture wanneer die leestaak dit vereis nie. Hoewel aIle lesers makrostrukture konstrueer, vorrn goeie lesers beter rnakrostrukture as swak lesers.

Thesis (MEd)--University of Stellenbosch, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South-Africa is presently in a process of transformation towards the provision of quality education for all. There prevails an aim of equal education to all learners. A vision of lifelong learning was formulated on a national level so that all parties concerned can contribute towards an equal education. All parties concerned, including educators, have the learner as the central figure. The meaning of the word "learner" should be thought over by all educators, especially seen against the background of the national vision that sets inclusive and cognitive education as a priority. The educator's task now includes learners with special educational needs. The insights generated in this study reveals that educaters, at this moment, are not empowered to maximised and develop the cognitive potential of the diverse learner. The working method of schools (especially educators) should be of such a nature that all learner's cognitive, emotional, psycho-motorical and intellectual abilities should be maximised and developed. Outcomes-Based Education (OBE) as an educational approach have theoretical and philosophical assumptions which makes it appropriate for implementing cognitive and inclusive education. This qualitative study review literature and explores the world of the educator to generate insights to construct a framework to help educators to understand the relationship between OBE, Curriculum 2005 and cognitive education within an Inclusive Framework. Life-long learning and applied learning do not focus primarily on the reproduction of facts and knowledge, it aims to construct knowledge through a variety of study, learning and thinking strategies. Each learner has inherent potential and the ability to be successful in spite of his/her needs. The focus shifts to the learners strengths in order to guide and develop their potential and abilities. To establish a culture of teaching and learning in our schools reaches further than concerns about large classes and undisciplined learners. Except experience, educators need a frame of reference to work with a variety of learners stemming from different sosio-economic backgrounds, each with his/her own learningstyle and information processing abilities. In the workplace educators should use a meta-theoretical approach, consisting of a variety of learning, thinking and teaching strategies to benefit the diverse learner. A collective energy is needed in the establishment of an educational culture that is tolerant towards diverse thoughts, values, attitudes and practises. To build that culture, it is very important for each educator to have a conceptual and theoretical framework of OBE, C200S and cognitive education. This study aims to provide a framework for educators to work in schools to the benefit of diverse learners. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Suid-Afrika is tans in 'n transformasiestadium, ook wat onderwysvoorsiening aan almal betref. Daar heers veral 'n strewe na die voorsiening van 'n gelyke onderwysvoorsiening vir alle leerders. 'n Visie van lewenslange leer is onlangs op nasionale vlak geformuleer sodat alle belanghebbendes op 'n gesonde wyse kan bydra tot 'n gelyke onderwysvoorsiening. Al hierdie belanghebbendes (insluitend opvoeders) deel een gemeenskaplikheid, naamlik die leerder. Dit is juis waar die probleem lê. Die begrip" leerder" behoort deur elke opvoeder herbesin te word, veral gesien teen die agtergrond van die nasionale visie wat inklusiewe onderwys en kognitiewe onderwys as prioriteit daar stel. Die opvoeder se taak sluit nou leerders met spesiale onderwysbehoeftes in. Die insigte gegenereer in hierdie studie dui daarop dat opvoeders nie op hierdie stadium ten volle bemagtig is om die kognitiewe potensiaal van die diverse leerder te optimaliseer nie. Skole (maar veralopvoeders) se werkswyse moet van so 'n aard wees dat alle leerders se kognitiewe, emosionele, psigo-motoriese en intellektuele vermoëns optimaal gestimuleer en verder ontwikkel word. Uitkomsgebaseerde onderwys (UGO) as onderwysbenadering se teoretiese en filosofiese onderbou is van so 'n aard dat dit uiters geskik is vir die implementering van kognitiewe en inklusiewe onderwys. Die kwalitatiewe aard van hierdie studie behels die verkenning van verskillende literatuur en ondersoek die leefwêreld van opvoeders waarna gepoog word om 'n konseptuele raamwerk te struktureer om die verband tussen UGO, K2005 en kognitiewe opvoeding toe te lig binne 'n inklusiewe raamwerk. Lewenslange leer en toegepaste leer fokus nie primêr op die reproduksie van feite en kennis nie, maar het dit ten doelom kennis te konstrueer aan die hand van studie, leer en denke. Elke leerder beskik oor die inherente potensiaal en die vermoëns om suksesvol te wees ongeag sy/haar behoeftes. Die fokus verskuif na elke leerder se sterkpunte ten einde hulle te bestuur en te ontwikkel. Om dus 'n kultuur van onderrig en leer in ons skole te skep, strek verder as die bekommernisse oor groot klasse en ongedissiplineerde leerders. Buiten ervaring, benodig opvoeders 'n verwysingsraamwerk om met verskillende leerders te werk afkomstig uit verskillende sosio-ekonomiese agtergronde, elkeen met sy eie voorkeurmodaliteit en informasie prosesseringsvermoë. Die praktyk vereis dat opvoeders aan die hand van metateoretiese werkswyses gebruik maak van verskillende leer, denk en onderrigstrategieë tot voordeel van die diverse leerder. Hiervoor word 'n kollektiewe energie benodig wat in die skep van 'n opvoedkundige kultuur wat verdraagsaam is teenoor diverse denke, dieselfde denke, waardes, houdings en praktyke. Om gestalte aan so 'n kultuur te gee, is dit uiters belangrik dat elke opvoeder oor 'n eietydse konseptueie en teoretiese raamwerk ten opsigte van UGO, K200S en kognitiewe opvoeding beskik. Hierdie studie poog om 'n raamwerk aan opvoeders te voorsien om in skole te werk tot voordeel van die diverse leerder.

The purpose of the study was to investigate the application of cognitive load theory to the design of online instruction. Students in three different courses (N = 146) were measured on both learning performance and perceptions of mental effort to see if there were any statistically significant differences. The study utilized a quasi-experimental posttest-only control group design contrasting modified and unmodified instructional lessons. Both groups were given a posttest to measure knowledge gained from the lesson (cognitive domain of learning) and perceptions of mental effort involved. Independent samples t-tests were used to compare the mean performance scores of the treatment groups (i.e. the sections using redesigned materials) versus the control groups for all three courses. Cohen's d was also computed to determine effect size. Mental effort scores were similarly compared for each group on the overall cognitive load score, for a total of six data points in the study. Of the four hypotheses examined, three (H1, H2, H4) found no statistically significant difference between the experimental and control groups. Negative significance was found between the experimental and control group on the effect of modality (H3). On measures of cognitive load, no statistically significant differences were found.

This study examined the comparative effectiveness of learning of cognitive skills when instruction is presented through computer-based instruction using student-to-computer ratios of one-to-one and two-to-one. Effectiveness was gauged through scores on posttests administered subsequent to completion of each of nine computer-based lessons and on a single composite test score.

Thesis (M.A (Psychology))--University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Humanities, 2016 / Undergraduate students’ require a certain degree of digital literacy in order to make use of the internet as a resource and educational tool. This report argues that two critical aspects of digital search literacy are the student’s ability to effectively execute and monitor the search strategies used to navigate the ever-increasing number of webpages; and the critical thinking skills required to evaluate those documents in an academic context. Therefore, digital literacy requires effective self-directed learning (SDL) skills and appropriate epistemic cognition (EC). The present research used a sequential explanatory design, which comprised of two phases: Stage 1, N = 119 and Stage 2, N=17. The sample for both phases of the project was drawn from students enrolled for first-year level psychology courses at the University of the Witwatersrand. The sample for Stage 2 was drawn from students who had already completed Stage 1, which required the completion an online questionnaire. During the second phase, students were tasked with conducting a web-based search on an essay topic relating to the discipline of psychology. Several research objectives were examined; general self-reported epistemic cognition and readiness for self-directed learning levels of a sample of undergraduate South African university students; self-reported self-directed learning behaviours, epistemic cognition and digital search literacy issues; the impact of search strategies on the type and quality of information sources located; and the psychology-specific epistemic beliefs involved in the evaluation of source features of web based documents. Findings showed that students did indeed engage specific self-directed learning and epistemic cognition behaviours while searching for resources online. The key components of digital search literacy included, self-directed learning (monitoring and strategy use) and epistemic cognition (source evaluation). In terms of rating the sources, personal justification and justification by authority were the most predominant when students rated the most credible sources; while relevance to task, personal justification and format/style were applied more often when rating the least credible web documents. In conclusion, future research on digital literacy should include the relative contribution of SDL and EC components as important mechanisms for online search strategies and critical source evaluation. Keywords: self-directed learning, epistemic cognition and beliefs, source evaluation, web search, navigation behaviour, strategies / GR2017