This research program represents the first systematic exploration of the subjective experience of alogia, anhedonia, attention problems, avolition, and emotional blunting, and its relation to other objective and subjective factors in schizophrenia. Using a combined rational-empirical approach, a vulnerability-stress-coping model of adjustment to the 5 negative symptoms was developed and tested. Three aspects of appraisal were examined, the primary appraisals of symptom severity and distress, and the secondary appraisal of control. The dimensions of coping with individual symptoms were initially examined using a rational approach, and then empirically using exploratory factor analyses. The Appraisal and Coping with Negative Symptoms Interview Schedule (ACNSIS) was developed for use in Study 1. Both qualitative and quantitative appraisal and coping data were examined for 20 people with negative symptoms. Responses to the ACNSIS demonstrated that appraisals and coping responses varied across participants and individual negative symptoms. Previously employed categorisations of coping behaviour were used to examine and quantify coping. Negative symptom-specific differences were found in awareness of negative symptom presence, degree of agreement with objective ratings, appraisals, reliance on different types of coping, and relations with participant characteristics. Participant coping responses from Study 1 were used to construct the self-report measure used in subsequent studies. Study 2 involved the development, administration, and evaluation of the self-report Appraisal and Coping with Negative Symptoms Questionnaire (ACNSQ). Both an electronic and paper version of the ACNSQ were developed. The ACNSQ was administered to 120 people with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Participants were required to make severity, distress and control appraisals for each negative symptom they believed they were suffering from. Following symptom appraisals, a number of symptom-specific and general coping items were presented for each negative symptom. In Study 2A, the multidimensionality of coping responses and the nature of empirically derived subscales were explored individually for each negative symptom. Factor analyses of data from 119 participants resulted in 3 underlying coping dimensions for each symptom. These dimensions, which formed the basis of the ACNSQ coping subscales, were labelled as active, emotional, or avoidant forms of coping. Coping subscales were found to be moderately similar across symptoms. The subscales were shown to be internally consistent and largely independent within symptoms. It was found that the degree of reliance on particular coping subscales was negative symptom-specific, although participant coping was related across symptoms. In Study 2B, the nature of negative symptom appraisals and the psychometric properties of the ACNSQ were examined. There was evidence that the nature of appraisals varied according to negative symptom. Retest reliability analyses indicated that overall, ACNSQ appraisals had a low to moderate degree of reliability while coping subscales demonstrated a moderate to high degree of reliability. Differential associations between appraisal and coping and a range of theoretically related variables provided evidence of the construct validity of the ACNSQ. Study 3 used exploratory techniques to conduct cross-sectional tests of a vulnerability-stress-coping model of adjustment to individual negative symptoms based on the data of the 119 participants. Associations between the objective indicator of negative symptom stressor level, and the subjective experience variables of insight, appraisal and coping were examined in relation to adjustment using a multidimensional approach. Two models of the relations between negative symptom predictors and 3 separate domains of adjustment were investigated. Study 3A provided moderate support for a direct effects model for each of the 5 negative symptoms. Objective negative symptom level, insight, primary appraisals and coping subscales all had significant direct effects on one or more domains of adjustment. In general, higher objective negative symptom levels, higher severity and distress appraisals, and greater reliance on avoidant forms of coping were associated with poorer adjustment. The direct effects of active and emotional forms of coping were less consistent and varied across symptoms and adjustment domains. Study 3B extended these findings by providing a limited amount of support for a mediated effects model. Appraisal and coping were found to act as mediators in some of the relations between objective indicators and subjective experience variables for alogia, attention problems and avolition. There was evidence that the impact of insight on coping was partly mediated by control appraisals. Coping partly mediated the relation between stress and adjustment, and appraisal and adjustment. Overall, this series of exploratory studies make a unique contribution to understanding the subjective experience of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. The proposed vulnerability-stress-coping model demonstrated utility in identifying variables important in the prediction of adjustment to individual negative symptoms, and in delineating the nature of associations between variables. Further research is required to improve the psychometric properties of the ACNSQ. However, it offers promise as an instrument with which to assess negative symptom appraisals and coping responses, in both clinical and research settings. The present findings have important theoretical and clinical implications concerning the role of subjective and objective factors involved in adjustment to the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. This research program provides a valuable foundation for future research to test the vulnerability-stress-coping model in its entirety.

Daily use of inhaled preventer medication is recommended for most people with asthma. However, research suggests many do not adhere to this regime. The current thesis comprises two research studies utilising the common-sense model of self-regulation as the theoretical basis to explore how people make decisions about inhaled preventer use in asthma. The purpose of Study One was to compare a self-report and an objective measure of adherence to preventer medication for asthma and to examine the illness representations and treatment beliefs associated with these measures. Accordingly, 1,936 U.K. General Practice patients who were using preventer medication for asthma completed a questionnaire assessing illness and medication perceptions and gave consent for information to be obtained from their medical records. Adherence to preventer medication was calculated from the Medication Adherence Report Scale (MARS) and an objective measure, the proportion of prescribed medication that the participant collected over the previous year. Results show that nearly nine out of ten participants (88.4%) reported some non-adherence to their preventer medication. The most common form of non-adherence was using preventer inhaler only when feeling breathless. The relationships between participants’ representations of their asthma and their beliefs about their preventer medication and adherence measures were tested using structural equation modelling. Seeing asthma as a condition that was not present when asymptomatic was associated with more non-adherence (β=.22 p<.001) and also with collecting a smaller proportion of prescribed preventer medication over the past year (β=-.15, p<.001). Seeing asthma as an acute condition, as a condition without serious consequences, and as a condition that could not be controlled by treatment were also representations associated with non-adherence. Those who did not see the need for preventer medication at all, or did not see the need for preventer medication when asymptomatic were more likely to be non-adherent. The relationship between illness representations and self-report adherence was mediated by the belief that medication was necessary. Having identified a number of key beliefs that were associated with use of preventer medication in asthma, Study Two explored the way in which these beliefs may be developed through the process of appraisal of the influence of medication use on symptom experience. Using quantitative methods, 77 patients from a New Zealand General Practice completed a questionnaire measuring the reasons for experimenting and stopping medication, illness representations and treatment beliefs. Thirty percent of the sample reported actively experimenting with their medication. These participants were more likely to hold the belief that medication did not help in the absence of symptoms (Mann-Whitney U=343.5, p<.05) and to report trying to avoid thinking about asthma (Mann-Whitney U=330.5, p<.05). Fifty-one of the participants were subsequently interviewed about their experiences with using medication and transcripts of these interviews were subjected to a qualitative analysis. Participants’ responses suggested that the process of appraising whether medication is necessary was influenced by the match between what the participant expects to happen when using the medication and what actually does happen. The process of deciding when medication is necessary is influenced by the threshold at which medication is deemed to be necessary and the speed at which symptoms return if medication is stopped. These findings have implications for the development of interventions to improve adherence to preventer medication for asthma. They suggest that a key component of self-management education is educating patients about the nature of asthma as a chronic condition that is present even in the absence of symptoms. Additionally, they provide evidence that many patients are involved in an active process of appraising the success of their medication. Health professionals should be aware of that this process is likely to be influenced by patients’ expectations of medication, the level of symptoms at which they believe action is required to control asthma and the speed at which symptoms return if medication is discontinued. Future research could take the form of a randomised controlled intervention to assess whether discussion of these factors with patients could improve quality of life for people with asthma. / Whole document restricted, but available by request, use the feedback form to request access.

In this thesis, Stroop task performance was investigated (using behavioural, electrophysiological and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) techniques) in late and proficient adult bilinguals currently living in the second language (L2) environment. Monolingual participants, matched for age and handedness, were recruited as controls. The Stroop colour-word task was considered an appropriate tool to test the general hypothesis that bilingualism might influence executive or cognitive control processes. In Study One, a dual-task paradigm was used for assessing the lateralisation of language functions (given the linguistic nature of the Stroop paradigm used here) in the bilinguals (Macedonian-English/M-E). Bilinguals showed a more bilateral hemispheric involvement, for both languages, compared to monolinguals. These findings also provided supporting evidence for the hypothesis of greater right-hemispheric involvement for language in bilinguals. In Study Two, two behavioural Stroop task paradigms (manual and verbal) were used in order to assess the magnitude of the Stroop effect between the groups. Bilinguals (M-E, German-English/G-E) showed a trend of smaller interference scores across both languages compared to monolinguals. In Study Three, manual Stroop task performance with concurrent electroencephalograph (EEG) recording revealed that bilinguals had temporal shifts in the N400 component (of about 30-40 ms) for the interference comparison for both languages compared to monolinguals. Also, relative to monolinguals, M-E bilinguals (for both L1 and L2) and G-E bilinguals (for L2) had fewer electrodes over frontal and central sites with a significant amplitude difference in the interference comparison (i.e., a reduced interference effect). In Study Four, the neural substrates engaged during Stroop task performance were investigated using fMRI. In general, monolinguals showed greater activation in regions such as the prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate (regions associated with good executive control). This suggested that relative to bilinguals, monolinguals require more neural resources to accomplish conflict resolution. Taken together, Stroop task performance in late and proficient bilinguals currently living in the L2 environment differed from that of monolinguals across all methods of investigation. It appears that cognitive processing changes at the executive level can be observed as a result of bilingualism. The results also provide some evidence for changes in L1 processing following late L2 acquisition, as similar results across both languages and tasks were observed for the M-E bilinguals. It is also possible that slight modifications to cerebral laterality as a result of the late learning of (and continuous exposure to) a second language could contribute to these differences in executive functioning. The language environment might therefore be a major factor in the lateralisation of language processing and executive functioning in bilinguals. These conclusions, though tentative and require further investigation, have important implications for language and executive processing in general and for theories regarding cognitive flexibility in bilinguals. / Auckland University Doctoral Scholarship

Whole document restricted, see Access Instructions file below for details of how to access the print copy. / This exploratory study investigates Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) rehabilitation processes and outcomes among culturally diverse outpatients in community-based rehabilitation who have sustained a Mild to Moderate TBI. The major aims of this study are twofold: firstly, to determine whether community-based rehabilitation outcomes following TBI differ across Mäori, Pacific and Pakeha cultures; and secondly, to determine and identify any service delivery needs for Mäori and Pacific people in TBI rehabilitation that may be distinct from Pakeha. A fixed comparative non-experimental design was utilised where participants were selected using direct control based on their self-identified ethnic group resulting in sub-samples of 11 Mäori, l1 Pacific and 11 Pakeha (n=33). A "Close Other" from their care-giving support network was selected by the participant to take part in the study (n=20). Each participant completed the Neurobehavioural Cognitive Status Examination (Cognistat), the Brain Injury Community Rehabilitation Outcome Scales (BICRO Scales), the Client Satisfaction Questionnaire (CSQ-31), the Beck Depression Inventory, 2nd Edition (BDI-II), the Impact of Events Scale Revised (IES-R) and a semi-structured qualitative interview, while a "Close Other" completed a BICRO "Carer" questionnaire. Results indicate that all participants were at a homogenous level of overall cognitive functioning but Pacific peoples scored significantly lower than both Mäori and Pakeha on two Language subtests and significantly lower than Pakeha on the Memory subtest. Statistical analysis suggests that both Years of Formal Education and English as a Second Language are important factors contributing to these differences. Individual handicap increased following TBI and decreased following rehabilitation, with no significant difference across cultures and suggesting efficacy of rehabilitation. Of the total sample, 42% scored in the clinically depressed range (half of whom were Pakeha) and 24% of the sample showed mild signs of post-traumatic stress (of whom almost 90% were Mäori or Pacific). Although 97% of participants were generally satisfied with their overall rehabilitation service, Mäori and Pacific people were significantly less satisfied with their Physical Surroundings and the Quantity of Services they received. In conclusion, there appears to be universalities in TBI experience and global rehabilitation outcomes that transcends individual cultures. However, there are micro-level cultural variations that have valuable implications when planning culturally appropriate rehabilitation services for the future. For Mäori and Pacific People, acculturation levels will determine the extent to which these implications apply.

Daily use of inhaled preventer medication is recommended for most people with asthma. However, research suggests many do not adhere to this regime. The current thesis comprises two research studies utilising the common-sense model of self-regulation as the theoretical basis to explore how people make decisions about inhaled preventer use in asthma. The purpose of Study One was to compare a self-report and an objective measure of adherence to preventer medication for asthma and to examine the illness representations and treatment beliefs associated with these measures. Accordingly, 1,936 U.K. General Practice patients who were using preventer medication for asthma completed a questionnaire assessing illness and medication perceptions and gave consent for information to be obtained from their medical records. Adherence to preventer medication was calculated from the Medication Adherence Report Scale (MARS) and an objective measure, the proportion of prescribed medication that the participant collected over the previous year. Results show that nearly nine out of ten participants (88.4%) reported some non-adherence to their preventer medication. The most common form of non-adherence was using preventer inhaler only when feeling breathless. The relationships between participants’ representations of their asthma and their beliefs about their preventer medication and adherence measures were tested using structural equation modelling. Seeing asthma as a condition that was not present when asymptomatic was associated with more non-adherence (β=.22 p<.001) and also with collecting a smaller proportion of prescribed preventer medication over the past year (β=-.15, p<.001). Seeing asthma as an acute condition, as a condition without serious consequences, and as a condition that could not be controlled by treatment were also representations associated with non-adherence. Those who did not see the need for preventer medication at all, or did not see the need for preventer medication when asymptomatic were more likely to be non-adherent. The relationship between illness representations and self-report adherence was mediated by the belief that medication was necessary. Having identified a number of key beliefs that were associated with use of preventer medication in asthma, Study Two explored the way in which these beliefs may be developed through the process of appraisal of the influence of medication use on symptom experience. Using quantitative methods, 77 patients from a New Zealand General Practice completed a questionnaire measuring the reasons for experimenting and stopping medication, illness representations and treatment beliefs. Thirty percent of the sample reported actively experimenting with their medication. These participants were more likely to hold the belief that medication did not help in the absence of symptoms (Mann-Whitney U=343.5, p<.05) and to report trying to avoid thinking about asthma (Mann-Whitney U=330.5, p<.05). Fifty-one of the participants were subsequently interviewed about their experiences with using medication and transcripts of these interviews were subjected to a qualitative analysis. Participants’ responses suggested that the process of appraising whether medication is necessary was influenced by the match between what the participant expects to happen when using the medication and what actually does happen. The process of deciding when medication is necessary is influenced by the threshold at which medication is deemed to be necessary and the speed at which symptoms return if medication is stopped. These findings have implications for the development of interventions to improve adherence to preventer medication for asthma. They suggest that a key component of self-management education is educating patients about the nature of asthma as a chronic condition that is present even in the absence of symptoms. Additionally, they provide evidence that many patients are involved in an active process of appraising the success of their medication. Health professionals should be aware of that this process is likely to be influenced by patients’ expectations of medication, the level of symptoms at which they believe action is required to control asthma and the speed at which symptoms return if medication is discontinued. Future research could take the form of a randomised controlled intervention to assess whether discussion of these factors with patients could improve quality of life for people with asthma. / Whole document restricted, but available by request, use the feedback form to request access.

In this thesis, Stroop task performance was investigated (using behavioural, electrophysiological and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) techniques) in late and proficient adult bilinguals currently living in the second language (L2) environment. Monolingual participants, matched for age and handedness, were recruited as controls. The Stroop colour-word task was considered an appropriate tool to test the general hypothesis that bilingualism might influence executive or cognitive control processes. In Study One, a dual-task paradigm was used for assessing the lateralisation of language functions (given the linguistic nature of the Stroop paradigm used here) in the bilinguals (Macedonian-English/M-E). Bilinguals showed a more bilateral hemispheric involvement, for both languages, compared to monolinguals. These findings also provided supporting evidence for the hypothesis of greater right-hemispheric involvement for language in bilinguals. In Study Two, two behavioural Stroop task paradigms (manual and verbal) were used in order to assess the magnitude of the Stroop effect between the groups. Bilinguals (M-E, German-English/G-E) showed a trend of smaller interference scores across both languages compared to monolinguals. In Study Three, manual Stroop task performance with concurrent electroencephalograph (EEG) recording revealed that bilinguals had temporal shifts in the N400 component (of about 30-40 ms) for the interference comparison for both languages compared to monolinguals. Also, relative to monolinguals, M-E bilinguals (for both L1 and L2) and G-E bilinguals (for L2) had fewer electrodes over frontal and central sites with a significant amplitude difference in the interference comparison (i.e., a reduced interference effect). In Study Four, the neural substrates engaged during Stroop task performance were investigated using fMRI. In general, monolinguals showed greater activation in regions such as the prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate (regions associated with good executive control). This suggested that relative to bilinguals, monolinguals require more neural resources to accomplish conflict resolution. Taken together, Stroop task performance in late and proficient bilinguals currently living in the L2 environment differed from that of monolinguals across all methods of investigation. It appears that cognitive processing changes at the executive level can be observed as a result of bilingualism. The results also provide some evidence for changes in L1 processing following late L2 acquisition, as similar results across both languages and tasks were observed for the M-E bilinguals. It is also possible that slight modifications to cerebral laterality as a result of the late learning of (and continuous exposure to) a second language could contribute to these differences in executive functioning. The language environment might therefore be a major factor in the lateralisation of language processing and executive functioning in bilinguals. These conclusions, though tentative and require further investigation, have important implications for language and executive processing in general and for theories regarding cognitive flexibility in bilinguals. / Auckland University Doctoral Scholarship

Whole document restricted, see Access Instructions file below for details of how to access the print copy. / This exploratory study investigates Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) rehabilitation processes and outcomes among culturally diverse outpatients in community-based rehabilitation who have sustained a Mild to Moderate TBI. The major aims of this study are twofold: firstly, to determine whether community-based rehabilitation outcomes following TBI differ across Mäori, Pacific and Pakeha cultures; and secondly, to determine and identify any service delivery needs for Mäori and Pacific people in TBI rehabilitation that may be distinct from Pakeha. A fixed comparative non-experimental design was utilised where participants were selected using direct control based on their self-identified ethnic group resulting in sub-samples of 11 Mäori, l1 Pacific and 11 Pakeha (n=33). A "Close Other" from their care-giving support network was selected by the participant to take part in the study (n=20). Each participant completed the Neurobehavioural Cognitive Status Examination (Cognistat), the Brain Injury Community Rehabilitation Outcome Scales (BICRO Scales), the Client Satisfaction Questionnaire (CSQ-31), the Beck Depression Inventory, 2nd Edition (BDI-II), the Impact of Events Scale Revised (IES-R) and a semi-structured qualitative interview, while a "Close Other" completed a BICRO "Carer" questionnaire. Results indicate that all participants were at a homogenous level of overall cognitive functioning but Pacific peoples scored significantly lower than both Mäori and Pakeha on two Language subtests and significantly lower than Pakeha on the Memory subtest. Statistical analysis suggests that both Years of Formal Education and English as a Second Language are important factors contributing to these differences. Individual handicap increased following TBI and decreased following rehabilitation, with no significant difference across cultures and suggesting efficacy of rehabilitation. Of the total sample, 42% scored in the clinically depressed range (half of whom were Pakeha) and 24% of the sample showed mild signs of post-traumatic stress (of whom almost 90% were Mäori or Pacific). Although 97% of participants were generally satisfied with their overall rehabilitation service, Mäori and Pacific people were significantly less satisfied with their Physical Surroundings and the Quantity of Services they received. In conclusion, there appears to be universalities in TBI experience and global rehabilitation outcomes that transcends individual cultures. However, there are micro-level cultural variations that have valuable implications when planning culturally appropriate rehabilitation services for the future. For Mäori and Pacific People, acculturation levels will determine the extent to which these implications apply.

Daily use of inhaled preventer medication is recommended for most people with asthma. However, research suggests many do not adhere to this regime. The current thesis comprises two research studies utilising the common-sense model of self-regulation as the theoretical basis to explore how people make decisions about inhaled preventer use in asthma. The purpose of Study One was to compare a self-report and an objective measure of adherence to preventer medication for asthma and to examine the illness representations and treatment beliefs associated with these measures. Accordingly, 1,936 U.K. General Practice patients who were using preventer medication for asthma completed a questionnaire assessing illness and medication perceptions and gave consent for information to be obtained from their medical records. Adherence to preventer medication was calculated from the Medication Adherence Report Scale (MARS) and an objective measure, the proportion of prescribed medication that the participant collected over the previous year. Results show that nearly nine out of ten participants (88.4%) reported some non-adherence to their preventer medication. The most common form of non-adherence was using preventer inhaler only when feeling breathless. The relationships between participants’ representations of their asthma and their beliefs about their preventer medication and adherence measures were tested using structural equation modelling. Seeing asthma as a condition that was not present when asymptomatic was associated with more non-adherence (β=.22 p<.001) and also with collecting a smaller proportion of prescribed preventer medication over the past year (β=-.15, p<.001). Seeing asthma as an acute condition, as a condition without serious consequences, and as a condition that could not be controlled by treatment were also representations associated with non-adherence. Those who did not see the need for preventer medication at all, or did not see the need for preventer medication when asymptomatic were more likely to be non-adherent. The relationship between illness representations and self-report adherence was mediated by the belief that medication was necessary. Having identified a number of key beliefs that were associated with use of preventer medication in asthma, Study Two explored the way in which these beliefs may be developed through the process of appraisal of the influence of medication use on symptom experience. Using quantitative methods, 77 patients from a New Zealand General Practice completed a questionnaire measuring the reasons for experimenting and stopping medication, illness representations and treatment beliefs. Thirty percent of the sample reported actively experimenting with their medication. These participants were more likely to hold the belief that medication did not help in the absence of symptoms (Mann-Whitney U=343.5, p<.05) and to report trying to avoid thinking about asthma (Mann-Whitney U=330.5, p<.05). Fifty-one of the participants were subsequently interviewed about their experiences with using medication and transcripts of these interviews were subjected to a qualitative analysis. Participants’ responses suggested that the process of appraising whether medication is necessary was influenced by the match between what the participant expects to happen when using the medication and what actually does happen. The process of deciding when medication is necessary is influenced by the threshold at which medication is deemed to be necessary and the speed at which symptoms return if medication is stopped. These findings have implications for the development of interventions to improve adherence to preventer medication for asthma. They suggest that a key component of self-management education is educating patients about the nature of asthma as a chronic condition that is present even in the absence of symptoms. Additionally, they provide evidence that many patients are involved in an active process of appraising the success of their medication. Health professionals should be aware of that this process is likely to be influenced by patients’ expectations of medication, the level of symptoms at which they believe action is required to control asthma and the speed at which symptoms return if medication is discontinued. Future research could take the form of a randomised controlled intervention to assess whether discussion of these factors with patients could improve quality of life for people with asthma. / Whole document restricted, but available by request, use the feedback form to request access.

In this thesis, Stroop task performance was investigated (using behavioural, electrophysiological and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) techniques) in late and proficient adult bilinguals currently living in the second language (L2) environment. Monolingual participants, matched for age and handedness, were recruited as controls. The Stroop colour-word task was considered an appropriate tool to test the general hypothesis that bilingualism might influence executive or cognitive control processes. In Study One, a dual-task paradigm was used for assessing the lateralisation of language functions (given the linguistic nature of the Stroop paradigm used here) in the bilinguals (Macedonian-English/M-E). Bilinguals showed a more bilateral hemispheric involvement, for both languages, compared to monolinguals. These findings also provided supporting evidence for the hypothesis of greater right-hemispheric involvement for language in bilinguals. In Study Two, two behavioural Stroop task paradigms (manual and verbal) were used in order to assess the magnitude of the Stroop effect between the groups. Bilinguals (M-E, German-English/G-E) showed a trend of smaller interference scores across both languages compared to monolinguals. In Study Three, manual Stroop task performance with concurrent electroencephalograph (EEG) recording revealed that bilinguals had temporal shifts in the N400 component (of about 30-40 ms) for the interference comparison for both languages compared to monolinguals. Also, relative to monolinguals, M-E bilinguals (for both L1 and L2) and G-E bilinguals (for L2) had fewer electrodes over frontal and central sites with a significant amplitude difference in the interference comparison (i.e., a reduced interference effect). In Study Four, the neural substrates engaged during Stroop task performance were investigated using fMRI. In general, monolinguals showed greater activation in regions such as the prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate (regions associated with good executive control). This suggested that relative to bilinguals, monolinguals require more neural resources to accomplish conflict resolution. Taken together, Stroop task performance in late and proficient bilinguals currently living in the L2 environment differed from that of monolinguals across all methods of investigation. It appears that cognitive processing changes at the executive level can be observed as a result of bilingualism. The results also provide some evidence for changes in L1 processing following late L2 acquisition, as similar results across both languages and tasks were observed for the M-E bilinguals. It is also possible that slight modifications to cerebral laterality as a result of the late learning of (and continuous exposure to) a second language could contribute to these differences in executive functioning. The language environment might therefore be a major factor in the lateralisation of language processing and executive functioning in bilinguals. These conclusions, though tentative and require further investigation, have important implications for language and executive processing in general and for theories regarding cognitive flexibility in bilinguals. / Auckland University Doctoral Scholarship

This study examines the differences between the skills and competencies of New Zealand flight school graduates and the types of skills and competencies believed to define a proficient air transport pilot. In New Zealand the training of professional pilots is directed towards meeting the requirements laid down by the New Zealand Civil Aviation Authority for the licensing of professional pilots. However, some evidence suggests that competence for licensing purposes does not necessarily meet the requirements of the airlines and the types of skills that they require as a prerequisite to airline training. Although not clearly defined, this shortfall has been recognised for several decades and traditional thinking is that extra flying experience gained as a general aviation pilot will develop the skills necessary for entry into airline pilot training. The importance that pilots of differing experience levels attach to technical and non-technical skills and their perception of the training effectiveness of those skills and how deficiencies in those skills contributed to aircraft accidents was explored by a four stage study including: i) a review and analysis of flight test results obtained from graduate pilots on a university air transport pilot programme; ii) the analysis of responses to questionnaires supplied to three pilot groups within the New Zealand aviation industry; iii) the analysis of air transport aircraft accidents and their primary and contributing causes; and iv) interviews with qualified airline pilots working for New Zealand airlines. The results indicated that throughout the spectrum of experience and qualifications, from student pilot to airline pilot, the technical skill of aircraft handling was highly valued and the training in this skill was considered by all pilots to be satisfactory. In contrast, while non-technical skill deficiencies were found to be primary or contributing factors in many aircraft accidents, less importance was attached to non-technical skills by all pilot groups. The training effectiveness of these skills was rated as only moderately effective or of minimal effectiveness. The findings are discussed and recommendations are made for the improvement of basic flight training. In addition, a model is proposed for the fast tracking of flight school graduates into the airline training schools. Several areas for future research are also proposed.