This study focuses on flow-induced bank erosion on the Red River. The study includes field measurements, experimental testing, and numerical simulation. Soil samples from the riverbank were collected at seven sites and their erodibility parameters were estimated through laboratory testing. The hydraulic shear stresses applied to the river reach were obtained by developing a 2D numerical model. Erosion rates for these sites were modeled using a linear excess shear stress equation. A bank monitoring and total suspended sediment investigation were also conducted to assess the erosion and deposition rates and patterns. The locations susceptible to erosion were determined and the periods during which these processes are likely to occur were estimated. The numerical modeling and soil testing results show that most of the time, the magnitude of flow shear stresses exerted on the bank are less than the soil sample critical shear stresses. Therefore, without considering other bank widening mechanisms as well as their interactions, the fluvial bank erosion (in isolation) should not be a significant process. However, bank monitoring shows significant bank erosion. It is recommended that the effect of subaerial processes (especially freeze-thaw) be investigated further to determine their effects on flow-induced erosion. The monitoring results convincingly show that climate-related phenomena influences cohesive soil structures and consequently, a soil’s cohesive resistance forces are significantly reduced. Therefore it can be concluded that subaerial mechanisms play a significant role in widening the banks of the Red River. / February 2016

Bridge scour, which is the removal of bed materials from near the bridge foundations, is observed to be the most predominant cause of bridge failures in the United States. Scour in cohesive soils is greatly different from scour in cohesionless soils owing to the differences in critical shear stresses, scour extents and the time taken to reach the maximum scour depth in the scour process. The present solutions available for the cohesionless soils cannot be applied to cohesive soils because of the above crucial reasons. Also, a compound channel model with main channel and flood plain arrangement represents more closely the field stream conditions rather than a simple rectangular prismatic model. In this study, a systematic investigation of the scour process due to flow contractions in a compound channel with cohesive soil bed is made by conducting a series of flume tests representing typical field conditions. The effect of the most crucial factors causing contraction scour namely flow velocity, depth of flow and the shape of the abutment is examined. Correction factors are developed for changes in flow geometries incorporating simulation results from the one dimensional flow simulation model HEC RAS. Most importantly, a methodology to predict the depth of the deepest scour hole and its location in the vicinity of the contraction structure is developed for compound channels through an extension of the presently available methodology to predict maximum scour depths in simple rectangular channels. A prediction method to identify the extent of the uniform scour depth is also developed. Finally, an investigation of precision of the proposed methodology has been carried out on the field data from a number of real life contraction scour cases. The results obtained from this study indicate that depth of flow and geometry of the contraction section significantly influence final scour depth in cohesive soils with deeper flows and harsh contractions resulting in increased scour depths. However, corrections for different contraction inlet skew angles and long contractions need to be further explored in future studies.

Bridge scour, which is the removal of bed materials from near the bridge foundations, is observed to be the most predominant cause of bridge failures in the United States. Scour in cohesive soils is greatly different from scour in cohesionless soils owing to the differences in critical shear stresses, scour extents and the time taken to reach the maximum scour depth in the scour process. The present solutions available for the cohesionless soils cannot be applied to cohesive soils because of the above crucial reasons. Also, a compound channel model with main channel and flood plain arrangement represents more closely the field stream conditions rather than a simple rectangular prismatic model. In this study, a systematic investigation of the scour process due to flow contractions in a compound channel with cohesive soil bed is made by conducting a series of flume tests representing typical field conditions. The effect of the most crucial factors causing contraction scour namely flow velocity, depth of flow and the shape of the abutment is examined. Correction factors are developed for changes in flow geometries incorporating simulation results from the one dimensional flow simulation model HEC RAS. Most importantly, a methodology to predict the depth of the deepest scour hole and its location in the vicinity of the contraction structure is developed for compound channels through an extension of the presently available methodology to predict maximum scour depths in simple rectangular channels. A prediction method to identify the extent of the uniform scour depth is also developed. Finally, an investigation of precision of the proposed methodology has been carried out on the field data from a number of real life contraction scour cases. The results obtained from this study indicate that depth of flow and geometry of the contraction section significantly influence final scour depth in cohesive soils with deeper flows and harsh contractions resulting in increased scour depths. However, corrections for different contraction inlet skew angles and long contractions need to be further explored in future studies.

<p>The purpose of this study was to build a database for point-bearing piles in dense noncohesive soil, predominantly moraine. Further, the database was analysed and areas with difficult geotechnical conditions was identified.</p><p>The database includes for point-bearing piles driven to refusal in moraine. Piles with mainly shaft friction have been excluded. Only concrete piles have been included. Geographically the database covers almost all geotechnical conditions of Sweden. The total amount of piling projects is 110 and the total amount of piles is 600.</p><p>For contractors, foundation work is usually connected with a lot of uncertainty and risk, concerning the estimating of time and cost. During the design stage of foundation construction the database can be a useful tool to estimate suitable loads on the piles.</p><p>The data was analysed further with different statistical method. Possible reasons for low bearing capacity, in some projects, have also been investigated.</p> / <p>Syftet med examensarbetet är att upprätta en databas över spetsburna pålar fastslagna i friktionsjord och morän. Vidare skall databasen analyseras för att hitta styrande parametrar samt även hitta områden med problematisk geoteknik.</p><p>Databasen omfattar spetsburna pålar som stoppslås i friktionsjord. Pålar som i huvudsak är mantelburna har uteslutits. Endast betongpålar har tagits med. Geografiskt omfattar databasen i stort sett hela Sverige. Totalt innehåller databasen 110 projekt med sammanlagt över 600 pålar.</p><p>För entreprenörer i byggbranschen är grundläggningsarbetet ofta förknippat med ekonomiska risker och osäkerhet gällande omfattning och tidsåtgång. Vid dimensionering av grundläggningsarbeten kan databasen vara till stor hjälp för att bestämma lämpliga lastnivåer. Mängden slagningsarbete och risken för bortslagna pålar kan lättare uppskattas.</p><p>Först analyserades olika påltyper utan ytterligare urvalskriterier. Vikten av att filtrera informationen blev då tydlig, eftersom resultatet blev svårtolkat och inga markanta samband kunde urskiljas. Med databasen som grund har materialet vidare analyserats med hjälp av statistiska metoder. Orsaken till låga bärförmågor vid ett urval av projekt har även kartlagts.</p>

The purpose of this study was to build a database for point-bearing piles in dense noncohesive soil, predominantly moraine. Further, the database was analysed and areas with difficult geotechnical conditions was identified. The database includes for point-bearing piles driven to refusal in moraine. Piles with mainly shaft friction have been excluded. Only concrete piles have been included. Geographically the database covers almost all geotechnical conditions of Sweden. The total amount of piling projects is 110 and the total amount of piles is 600. For contractors, foundation work is usually connected with a lot of uncertainty and risk, concerning the estimating of time and cost. During the design stage of foundation construction the database can be a useful tool to estimate suitable loads on the piles. The data was analysed further with different statistical method. Possible reasons for low bearing capacity, in some projects, have also been investigated. / Syftet med examensarbetet är att upprätta en databas över spetsburna pålar fastslagna i friktionsjord och morän. Vidare skall databasen analyseras för att hitta styrande parametrar samt även hitta områden med problematisk geoteknik. Databasen omfattar spetsburna pålar som stoppslås i friktionsjord. Pålar som i huvudsak är mantelburna har uteslutits. Endast betongpålar har tagits med. Geografiskt omfattar databasen i stort sett hela Sverige. Totalt innehåller databasen 110 projekt med sammanlagt över 600 pålar. För entreprenörer i byggbranschen är grundläggningsarbetet ofta förknippat med ekonomiska risker och osäkerhet gällande omfattning och tidsåtgång. Vid dimensionering av grundläggningsarbeten kan databasen vara till stor hjälp för att bestämma lämpliga lastnivåer. Mängden slagningsarbete och risken för bortslagna pålar kan lättare uppskattas. Först analyserades olika påltyper utan ytterligare urvalskriterier. Vikten av att filtrera informationen blev då tydlig, eftersom resultatet blev svårtolkat och inga markanta samband kunde urskiljas. Med databasen som grund har materialet vidare analyserats med hjälp av statistiska metoder. Orsaken till låga bärförmågor vid ett urval av projekt har även kartlagts.

In light of increased stream temperatures due to urbanization and climate change, the<br />effect of water temperature on cohesive soil erosion should be explored. The objectives of this study are to: determine the effect of water temperature on the erosion rates of clay; determine how erosion rates vary with clay mineralogy; and, explore the relationship between zeta potential and erosion rate. Samples of kaolinite- and montmorillonite-sand mixtures, and vermiculite-dominated soil were placed in the wall of a recirculating flume channel using a vertical sample orientation. Erosion rate was measured under a range of shear stresses (0.1-20 Pa) for a period of five minutes per shear stress at water temperatures of 12, 20, and 27�"C. The zeta potential was determined for each clay type at the three testing temperatures and compared to mean erosion rates. The kaolinite erosion rate doubled when the temperature increased from 12 to 20�"C, and erosion of vermiculite samples tripled when the temperature increased from 20 to 27�"C. The montmorillonite samples generally eroded through mechanical failure rather than fluvial erosion, and the limited fluvial erosion of the montmorillonite-sand mixture was not correlated with water temperature. The data suggest correlation between zeta potential and erosion rate; however, due to the small sample size (n=3), statistically significant correlation was not indicated. Research should continue to explore the influence of water temperature on cohesive soil erosion to better understand the influence of clay mineralogy. Due to the high degree of variability in cohesive soil erosion, multiple replications should be used in future work. The vertical sample orientation enabled discrimination between fluvial erosion and mass wasting and is recommended for future studies. / Master of Science

Os Tabuleiros Costeiros são unidades geomorfologicamente definidas, caracterizando-se como formações sedimentares de topos aplainadas de grande extensão territorial, amplamente povoada, com intensa exploração econômica agropecuária, mas com a presença constante de restrições físicas ao uso agrícola, associadas à presença de solos com horizontes coesos em subsuperfície. A presença deste horizonte coeso reduz a profundidade efetiva dos solos, prejudicando a dinâmica da água no perfil e, principalmente, o aprofundamento do sistema radicular, reduzindo as taxas de infiltração de água, criando lençóis freáticos suspensos e que se desenvolvem particularmente sob os Latossolos Amarelos (Latossolos Amarelos) e os Argissolos Amarelos (Podzólicos Amarelos). Assim, a presença destes horizontes em áreas úmidas, pode ser associada a um maior teor de umidade nos solos, que pode ser captada pelo sensor. Devido a sua natureza pedológica e sua localização em sub superfície e sua grande extensão, estes solos demandam grandes recursos para sua efetiva localização e mapeamento. A aplicação de técnicas de processamento digital de imagens nas imagens do sensor ASTER, um sensor experimental e pouco explorado, possibilita a redução de custos, empregados nos levantamentos exploratórios para localização destes horizontes coesos. O principal objetivo deste trabalho foi submeter imagens obtidas através do sensoriamento remoto óptico orbital, do sensor ASTER, a diferentes técnicas de processamento digital de imagens, para assim identificar, reconhecer e caracterizar a presença dos horizontes coesos nos solos dos Tabuleiros Costeiros da Bahia, utilizando como critério identificador, o teor de umidade dos solos. O trabalho foi desenvolvido numa área de aproximadamente 2.475km2, onde está inserida uma área de referência de 29km2, situada no município de Esplanada, onde predominam solos da mesma Classe (Podzólicos Amarelos e Acinzentados) mas diferenciados em unidades que possuem diversos graus de coesão, com textura que varia de arenosa a argilosa. Foi utilizada uma única cena ASTER, sob a qual foi extraída oitenta amostras para determinar a relação entre o teor de umidade dos solos e as diferentes técnicas de processamento digital de imagens. Foram realizadas vinte e seis técnicas de realce (análise componentes principais, Transformação Tasseled Cap, NDVI, NDMI, SAVI e vinte e uma razões entre bandas do sensor ASTER) , além da aplicação de uma classificação supervisionada (método da máxima verossimilhança), com limiar de aceitação de 95%. Os resultados demonstraram que a sétima componente principal é o melhor produto para mapear a presença dos horizontes coesos, por melhor identificar a umidade do solo; o NDMI, o SAVI e a Umidade obtida através da Transformação Tasseled Cap têm um comportamento similar entre si, mas com resultados menos evidentes e entre as razões entre as faixas espectrais testadas, os melhores resultados foram as razões entre as faixas 1 e 8 e entre as faixas 3 e 8. / The Coastal Tableland are units geomorfologicaly defined, characterized by sedimentary formations of smoothed tops of great territorial extension, widely populated, with intense agricultural economic exploration, but with the constant presence of physical restrictions to agricultural use, that are associated to cohesion horizons in subsurface. The presence of this cohesion horizon reduces the soils depth, harming the dynamics of the water in the profile and, mainly, the radicular system of depth, reducing the water infiltration rates and creating suspended sheets particularly under Yellow Latossol and Yellow Podzolic. Thus, the presence of these horizons in humid areas can be associated with higher moisture levels in the soils that can be caught by the sensor. Due to its pedologic nature, sub surface and great extension location, these soil demand great resources for its effective localization and mapping. The application of techniques of image digital processing in the images of the ASTER sensor, an experimental and few explored sensor, turns possible the reduction of costs, used in the exploratory searches for the localization of these cohesion horizons. The main objective of this work was to submit images obtained through the orbital optical remote sensed, of the ASTER sensor, the different image digital processing techniques, in order to identify, to recognize and to characterize the cohesion horizons soil of Coastal Tableland of Bahia, using as identification criteria, the soil moisture contents . The work was developed in an area of 2.475km2 approximately, where an area of reference of 29km2 is inserted, situated in Esplanada city of, where soil of the same class prevail (Yellow and Grey Podzólicos) but differentiated in predominate units that possess diverse cohesion degrees , with texture that varies of sandy the loamy. An only ASTER scene was used, under which it was extracted eighty samples to determine the relationship between the the soil moisture contents and the different images digital images processing techniques. Twenty-six techniques of distinction had been carried through (principal components analysis, Tasseled Cap Transformation, NDVI, NDMI, SAVI and twenty bands ratio on the ASTER sensor bands), beyond the application of a supervised classification (Maximum Likelihood method), with threshold of 95% acceptance. The results had demonstrated that the seventh principal component is the best product to map the cohesion horizons presence and to identify the soil moisture contents; the NDMI, the SAVI and the Wetness obtained through the Tasseled Cap Transformation have a similar behavior, but with less evidences relating the results and, the ratio bands tested, the best results had been those found between bands 1 to 8 and bands 3 to 8.

In urban areas, vibrations generated by pile driving often affect the neighboring properties vulnerable to ground shaking. These vibrations may cause damage to surrounding structures either by shaking the ground or by causing settlement of the soil beneath foundations in the proximity of pile driving. It is important to distinguish between the conditions under which the vibrations will cause damage and those under which vibrations are tolerable. The numerical studies on the analysis of pile driving have mostly focused on assessing the driving efficiency and the bearing capacity of dynamically loaded piles. A limited number of studies included the study of ground vibrations due to pile driving and its effects on adjacent structures. However, the factors affecting the ground vibrations in soils such as the nonlinear constitutive behavior of soil, soil-pile interaction and penetration depth of the pile have not been clearly identified. The objective of this research is to implement a numerical method to simulate dynamic loading of a single pile, and study the factors influencing the stress wave propagation in the soil surrounding the pile. The thesis is comprised of two main analyses: (1) the static analysis of a pile in which the phenomenon of static consolidation is studied, and (2) the dynamic analysis of a pile in which pile driving and ground vibrations are studied. In the static analysis, the load capacity of a single pile is investigated. The results from the finite element method are compared with widely recognized theoretical methods. The theoretical methods that are used to estimate the end bearing capacities are: (1) General Formula, (2) Vesic's Method, (3) Janbu's Method, (4) Meyerhof's Method, and (5) Coyle & Castello's Method. The estimation of skin friction resistance (shaft capacity) of single piles is performed using the (1) Alpha method, (2) Beta method, and (3) Lambda method. Two numerical applications are performed to predict the load capacity of single piles in normally consolidated clays. It is observed that the model with no slippage at the interface predicts almost twice as much load capacity as the model with interface. In regards with the end bearing capacities, Coyle & Castello's method is found to be most conservative followed by the finite element method, the Janbu's method, the Meyerhof's method, and finally the Vesic's method. In respect to skin friction resistance, the finite element is found to be the most conservative method, followed by the Beta, the Lambda, and the Alpha method. In the dynamic analysis, the amplitudes of ground vibrations are investigated based on the variation of: (1) the soil type, (2) the pile embedment length and (3) the released hammer energy. In the first analysis, five types of soils - loose and dense sands and, soft, medium stiff, and stiff clays - are modeled. The highest vibration amplitude is calculated for the loose sand with a peak particle velocity (PPV) of 10.0 mm/s followed by the dense sand with a PPV of around 4.0 mm/s. Among the clay types, the vibrations are higher for the stiffer clay in the near field, which is 9 m (half a pile length) or less away from the pile. In the second analysis, three different embedment lengths - full, half, and quarter pile length - are modeled. It is found that the quarter embedded piles produce greater vibration amplitudes as compared to the half and fully embedded piles. Larger amplitudes of vibrations are encountered on the ground surface for shorter pile embedment lengths. In the third analysis, three different impact forces consisting of 2,000 kN (F), 6,000 kN (3F) and 10,000 kN (5F) are applied on the pile head. It is concluded that increase in hammer energy causes increase in the peak particle velocities.

The bridge scour depths in cohesive soil have been predicted using the scour equations developed for cohesionless soils due to scarce of studies about cohesive soil. The scour depths predicted by the conventional methods will result in significant errors. For the cost effective design of bridge scour in cohesive soil, the Scour Rate In COhesvie Soil (SRICOS) for the singular circular pier in deep water condition was released in 1999, and has been developed for complex pier and contraction scour. The present study is the part of SRICOS-EFA method to predict the history of contraction scour, and local scours, such as abutment scour and pier scour. The main objective is to develop the prediction methods for the maximum and the uniform contraction scour depth, the maximum pier scour depth and the maximum abutment using flume test results. The equations are basically composed with the difference between the local Froude number and the critical Froude number. Because the scour happens when the shear stress is bigger than the critical shear stress, which is the maximum shear stress the channel bed material can resist from the erosion, and continues until the shear stress becomes equal to the critical shear stress. All results obtained from flume tests for pier scour have been conducted in Texas A&M University from 1997 to 2002 are collected and reanalyzed in this study. Since the original pier scour equation did not include soil properties. The effect of water depth effect, pier spacing, pier shape and flow attack angle for the rectangular pier are studied and correction factors with respect to the circular pier in deep water condition were newly developed in present study. For the abutment scour, a series of flume tests in large scale was performed in the present study. Two types of channel - rectangular channel, and compound channel - were used. The effect of abutment length, shape and alignment of abutment were studied and the correction factors were developed. The patterns of velocity and of scour were compared, and it was found that the maximum local scour occurred where the maximum turbulence was measured. For the contraction scour, the results obtained from a series of flume tests performed in 2002 and a series of flume tests for the abutment scour in the present study are analyzed. The methodologies to predict the maximum contraction scour and the uniform contraction scour in the compound channel was developed. Although all prediction methods developed in the present study are for the cohesive soils, those methods may be applicable to the cohesionless soils because the critical shear stress is included in the methods. All prediction methods were verified by the comparison with the databases obtained from flume test results and field data.

Os Tabuleiros Costeiros são unidades geomorfologicamente definidas, caracterizando-se como formações sedimentares de topos aplainadas de grande extensão territorial, amplamente povoada, com intensa exploração econômica agropecuária, mas com a presença constante de restrições físicas ao uso agrícola, associadas à presença de solos com horizontes coesos em subsuperfície. A presença deste horizonte coeso reduz a profundidade efetiva dos solos, prejudicando a dinâmica da água no perfil e, principalmente, o aprofundamento do sistema radicular, reduzindo as taxas de infiltração de água, criando lençóis freáticos suspensos e que se desenvolvem particularmente sob os Latossolos Amarelos (Latossolos Amarelos) e os Argissolos Amarelos (Podzólicos Amarelos). Assim, a presença destes horizontes em áreas úmidas, pode ser associada a um maior teor de umidade nos solos, que pode ser captada pelo sensor. Devido a sua natureza pedológica e sua localização em sub superfície e sua grande extensão, estes solos demandam grandes recursos para sua efetiva localização e mapeamento. A aplicação de técnicas de processamento digital de imagens nas imagens do sensor ASTER, um sensor experimental e pouco explorado, possibilita a redução de custos, empregados nos levantamentos exploratórios para localização destes horizontes coesos. O principal objetivo deste trabalho foi submeter imagens obtidas através do sensoriamento remoto óptico orbital, do sensor ASTER, a diferentes técnicas de processamento digital de imagens, para assim identificar, reconhecer e caracterizar a presença dos horizontes coesos nos solos dos Tabuleiros Costeiros da Bahia, utilizando como critério identificador, o teor de umidade dos solos. O trabalho foi desenvolvido numa área de aproximadamente 2.475km2, onde está inserida uma área de referência de 29km2, situada no município de Esplanada, onde predominam solos da mesma Classe (Podzólicos Amarelos e Acinzentados) mas diferenciados em unidades que possuem diversos graus de coesão, com textura que varia de arenosa a argilosa. Foi utilizada uma única cena ASTER, sob a qual foi extraída oitenta amostras para determinar a relação entre o teor de umidade dos solos e as diferentes técnicas de processamento digital de imagens. Foram realizadas vinte e seis técnicas de realce (análise componentes principais, Transformação Tasseled Cap, NDVI, NDMI, SAVI e vinte e uma razões entre bandas do sensor ASTER) , além da aplicação de uma classificação supervisionada (método da máxima verossimilhança), com limiar de aceitação de 95%. Os resultados demonstraram que a sétima componente principal é o melhor produto para mapear a presença dos horizontes coesos, por melhor identificar a umidade do solo; o NDMI, o SAVI e a Umidade obtida através da Transformação Tasseled Cap têm um comportamento similar entre si, mas com resultados menos evidentes e entre as razões entre as faixas espectrais testadas, os melhores resultados foram as razões entre as faixas 1 e 8 e entre as faixas 3 e 8. / The Coastal Tableland are units geomorfologicaly defined, characterized by sedimentary formations of smoothed tops of great territorial extension, widely populated, with intense agricultural economic exploration, but with the constant presence of physical restrictions to agricultural use, that are associated to cohesion horizons in subsurface. The presence of this cohesion horizon reduces the soils depth, harming the dynamics of the water in the profile and, mainly, the radicular system of depth, reducing the water infiltration rates and creating suspended sheets particularly under Yellow Latossol and Yellow Podzolic. Thus, the presence of these horizons in humid areas can be associated with higher moisture levels in the soils that can be caught by the sensor. Due to its pedologic nature, sub surface and great extension location, these soil demand great resources for its effective localization and mapping. The application of techniques of image digital processing in the images of the ASTER sensor, an experimental and few explored sensor, turns possible the reduction of costs, used in the exploratory searches for the localization of these cohesion horizons. The main objective of this work was to submit images obtained through the orbital optical remote sensed, of the ASTER sensor, the different image digital processing techniques, in order to identify, to recognize and to characterize the cohesion horizons soil of Coastal Tableland of Bahia, using as identification criteria, the soil moisture contents . The work was developed in an area of 2.475km2 approximately, where an area of reference of 29km2 is inserted, situated in Esplanada city of, where soil of the same class prevail (Yellow and Grey Podzólicos) but differentiated in predominate units that possess diverse cohesion degrees , with texture that varies of sandy the loamy. An only ASTER scene was used, under which it was extracted eighty samples to determine the relationship between the the soil moisture contents and the different images digital images processing techniques. Twenty-six techniques of distinction had been carried through (principal components analysis, Tasseled Cap Transformation, NDVI, NDMI, SAVI and twenty bands ratio on the ASTER sensor bands), beyond the application of a supervised classification (Maximum Likelihood method), with threshold of 95% acceptance. The results had demonstrated that the seventh principal component is the best product to map the cohesion horizons presence and to identify the soil moisture contents; the NDMI, the SAVI and the Wetness obtained through the Tasseled Cap Transformation have a similar behavior, but with less evidences relating the results and, the ratio bands tested, the best results had been those found between bands 1 to 8 and bands 3 to 8.