<p>Large areas prone to clay slides are present in Canada, Sweden and Norway. Traditionally, mainly geotechnical approaches have been used to solve clay-slide issues. However, there is great potential to utilise interdisciplinary studies in order to prevent or reduce possible slide damage. The present study combines geology, morphology and geophysical investigations, with geotechnical data. The purpose is to better understand landscape development, formation of quick clay and sliding in clay.</p><p>Thick, marine clay deposits in valleys along the Norwegian coast are occasionally subjected to large landslides involving quick clay. The development of quick clay is closely related to the deglaciation history of the coastal parts of Norway. During and after the last ice age, up to several hundred metres of glaciomarine and marine deposits accumulated in Norwegian fjords. These sediments were subsequently exposed on land due to glacioisostatic rebound. Leaching of salt from the marine clay by groundwater resulted in the development of quick-clay layers or pockets, which completely liquefy when remoulded.</p><p>The study area of this thesis is the small valley Buvika, located in the Trondheimsfjorden area, Mid Norway. Buvika is characterised by its undulating terrain with numerous slide scars and ravines. There are thick occurrences of quick clay in the subsurface.</p><p>The existing geotechnical and geophysical data, combined with sedimentology, structural geology, morphology, geophysical results, and 14C-datings, have given input to the understanding of the landscape development of the study area. From this, a deglaciation history has been deduced, indicating at least one, and possibly two, minor glacier re-advances in Late Allerød/Early Younger Dryas time. This implies that there have been more and larger ice-front oscillations in the study area than earlier documented.</p><p>The lowered relative sea level led to incision by rivers accompanied by numerous slides involving quick clay. The erosion pattern of a valley filled with glaciomarine and marine deposits can be quite complex, but careful analyses have helped outlining the interplay between river and ravine incision, groundwater erosion and sliding. The study of sediments and structures in large excavated sections have resulted in the detection of slide material from old flake-type slides, where only a thin layer of quick clay acted as a slide plane. Younger slide scars cutting into theses older slide deposits show further quick-clay development. Mapping of the morphology in Buvika has identified numerous slide scars and ravines. A relative chronology of slide events has been established based upon the slide scars’ position in the terrain and/or results from 14C-datings of terrestrial organic material. Most of the historical slide scars are located in the northern part of the valley.</p><p>Detailed mapping of the quick-clay extent is of great interest for planning and protection purposes, as the position of quick clay within slopes has a major impact on the landslide risk. In this study, the resistivity method is found to be potentially well suited for outlining quick-clay occurrences since quick clay has a slightly higher electrical resistivity (10-80 Ωm) than intact unleached clay (1-10 Ωm). This is due to a higher salt content in the latter. These relationships are supported by pore water salt content measurements. The resistivity profiles that were acquired show good correlation with other geophysical data and geotechnical drillings. However, the resistivity method must be combined with other investigations, since both leached, non-quick clay and silty, non-sensitive material may give resistivity values of the same range as quick clay.</p><p>The stratigraphy of an area strongly influences the landscape development. It determines the morphology, such as ravine development, and size, shape and distribution of slides. To the east of Buvika, thick and frequent layers of sand and gravel in the dominant clay deposits drain the slopes, leading to development of deeply incising ravines. To the south and north, thinner layers of coarse material in the clay lead to pore-pressure build-ups and quick-clay development, resulting in numerous slide scars.</p>

Large areas prone to clay slides are present in Canada, Sweden and Norway. Traditionally, mainly geotechnical approaches have been used to solve clay-slide issues. However, there is great potential to utilise interdisciplinary studies in order to prevent or reduce possible slide damage. The present study combines geology, morphology and geophysical investigations, with geotechnical data. The purpose is to better understand landscape development, formation of quick clay and sliding in clay. Thick, marine clay deposits in valleys along the Norwegian coast are occasionally subjected to large landslides involving quick clay. The development of quick clay is closely related to the deglaciation history of the coastal parts of Norway. During and after the last ice age, up to several hundred metres of glaciomarine and marine deposits accumulated in Norwegian fjords. These sediments were subsequently exposed on land due to glacioisostatic rebound. Leaching of salt from the marine clay by groundwater resulted in the development of quick-clay layers or pockets, which completely liquefy when remoulded. The study area of this thesis is the small valley Buvika, located in the Trondheimsfjorden area, Mid Norway. Buvika is characterised by its undulating terrain with numerous slide scars and ravines. There are thick occurrences of quick clay in the subsurface. The existing geotechnical and geophysical data, combined with sedimentology, structural geology, morphology, geophysical results, and 14C-datings, have given input to the understanding of the landscape development of the study area. From this, a deglaciation history has been deduced, indicating at least one, and possibly two, minor glacier re-advances in Late Allerød/Early Younger Dryas time. This implies that there have been more and larger ice-front oscillations in the study area than earlier documented. The lowered relative sea level led to incision by rivers accompanied by numerous slides involving quick clay. The erosion pattern of a valley filled with glaciomarine and marine deposits can be quite complex, but careful analyses have helped outlining the interplay between river and ravine incision, groundwater erosion and sliding. The study of sediments and structures in large excavated sections have resulted in the detection of slide material from old flake-type slides, where only a thin layer of quick clay acted as a slide plane. Younger slide scars cutting into theses older slide deposits show further quick-clay development. Mapping of the morphology in Buvika has identified numerous slide scars and ravines. A relative chronology of slide events has been established based upon the slide scars’ position in the terrain and/or results from 14C-datings of terrestrial organic material. Most of the historical slide scars are located in the northern part of the valley. Detailed mapping of the quick-clay extent is of great interest for planning and protection purposes, as the position of quick clay within slopes has a major impact on the landslide risk. In this study, the resistivity method is found to be potentially well suited for outlining quick-clay occurrences since quick clay has a slightly higher electrical resistivity (10-80 Ωm) than intact unleached clay (1-10 Ωm). This is due to a higher salt content in the latter. These relationships are supported by pore water salt content measurements. The resistivity profiles that were acquired show good correlation with other geophysical data and geotechnical drillings. However, the resistivity method must be combined with other investigations, since both leached, non-quick clay and silty, non-sensitive material may give resistivity values of the same range as quick clay. The stratigraphy of an area strongly influences the landscape development. It determines the morphology, such as ravine development, and size, shape and distribution of slides. To the east of Buvika, thick and frequent layers of sand and gravel in the dominant clay deposits drain the slopes, leading to development of deeply incising ravines. To the south and north, thinner layers of coarse material in the clay lead to pore-pressure build-ups and quick-clay development, resulting in numerous slide scars.

The Kristianstad plain contains one of the most interesting and exciting groundwater of Sweden. It is also one of Northern Europe´s largest groundwater resources. The layers of gravel, limestone, sand, and sandstone is prime location. The amount of available water is veryhigh. The groundwater is consumed by four municipalities; Kristianstad, Eastern Goinge, Bromölla, and Hässleholm, including several industrial zones. Large quantities of groundwater have been used for agricultural irrigation. Groundwater resource carrying capacity refers to the maximum ability of groundwater system for supply industrial production, people’s lives and protection of the eco-environment under certain technical level and social condition in different periods of the future. Groundwater is a part of this cycle, which eventually flows into rivers, different types of wetlands, lakes or directly into the Baltic Sea. Withdrawal of groundwater is also part of the cycle. A waterbed, also known as an aquifer, is a geological formation containing groundwater and it is so permeable that groundwater may be extracted in larger quantity. Aquifers are filled with water by infiltrating precipitation, leakage from other aquifers or through infiltration from rivers. The extraction of groundwater may not exceed the inflow for a long time. If this occurs it is a risk of progressive lowering of the water quality or its deterioration. Area of reservoir, groundwater Färlöv– Vinnö is I think a good limit of economic water.

Denna studie syftar att i relation till governance-perspektivet granska forskares argumentation kring reglering avgeoengineering. Detta för att utläsa om den reglering som forskare argumenterar för kan väntas vara effektiv närklimatfrågor styrs allt mer integrerat från samhället.Geoengineering är samlingsnamnet för tekniker som återbalanserar klimatet för att motverka klimatförändringar.Teknikerna innebär stora risker då kunskapen idag är liten om effekter från användning. I dagsläget finns inte hellernågon direkt reglering av geoengineeringteknikerna, endast några tekniker regleras till viss del av internationella avtalfrån FN. Detta framhävs som ett starkt argument av flertalet forskare för varför reglering är nödvändigt att utforma.Att en enskild aktör, eller en begränsad grupp aktörer kan använda teknikerna utan samtycke från andra staterpresenteras som ytterligare ett argument till varför reglering är nödvändigt.Hur forskarna menar att regleringen bör utformas för största effekt varierar, men överens är de om att i slutändankrävs en internationell reglering, då effekterna från teknikerna är globala. En sådan utformning är inte helt förenlig medgovernance-perspektivet som syftar till en styrning som är integrerad i samhället och inte som bindande internationellaavtal som integreras i politiken inom staterna. Vägen till internationella diskussioner kring reglering av geoengineeringser forskarna lite olika på. Flera förespråkar att mer forskning bör ligga till grund för regleringen och att denforskningen bör regleras av normer och principer. Tre forskares argumentation skiljer sig från övriga i frågan omvägen till internationell reglering. De förespråkar att normer och principer ligger till grund för forskning och attstaterna utifrån den skall bilda sig en uppfattning av geoengineering för att sedan gå in i internationella diskussioner.Argumentationen som forskarna presenterar i sina texter varierar, men även många likheter kan ses i hur de menar attregleringen av geoengineering bör utformas för att vara så effektiv som möjligt. I och med att forskarnasargumentation varierar finns det även en variation i överensstämmelse med den utveckling som Hoffman (2011),O`Neill (2009) och Hedlund och Montin (2009), tre forskare som diskuterar governance-perspektivet, ser med en merintegrerad styrning i samhället.

<p>The use of improved equipment and methodology can result in considerable reductions in the drilling costs for medium- to large sized ground source heat pump system in crystalline bedrock. The main point has been to use special techniques within hydraulic fracturing to create a larger heat exchange area in the bedrock, and thus a greater energy extraction per borehole. The energy extraction is based on circulating groundwater.</p><p>Stimulation with hydraulic fracturing is a well known technique in order to improve borehole yields for drinking water-, oil-, and geothermal purposes. A procedure for injection of propping agents in selected borehole sections, and custom-made equipment for hydraulic fracturing in crystalline bedrock, a double packer, have been developed in this study. The propping agents are likely to ensure a permanent improvement of the hydraulic conductivity in a long-run perspective. </p><p>In addition to a pre-test, a comprehensive test programme has been performed at each of the two pilot plants at Bryn and at the former property of Energiselskapet Asker og Bærum (EAB) in Bærum municipality outside Oslo, Norway. A total of 125 stimulations with hydraulic fracturing using water-only and hydraulic fracturing with injection of sand have been performed in 9 boreholes. Test pumping and geophysical logging (temperature, electrical conductivity, gamma radiation, optical televiewer and flow measurements) have been carried out in order to document the effect of the hydraulic fracturing.</p><p>The pilot plants at Bryn and EAB, where the ground source heat pump systems are based on circulating groundwater, have demonstrated the short-period energy extraction, limitations and opportunities of the concept for hydraulic fracturing and increased energy extraction in different geological and hydrogeological areas. The bedrock at Bryn and EAB is characterized as a low-metamorphic sandstone and a nodular limestone, respectively. At Bryn, the five boreholes were organised with a central borehole encircled by four satellite boreholes 13 metres away from the central borehole. The central borehole at EAB was flanked with two boreholes 16 and 20 metres away. In operation mode, groundwater was pumped from the satellite boreholes, heat exchanged, and re-injected into the groundwater magazine via the central borehole. Routine operation of the plants has not yet been initiated.</p><p>The main findings from this study can be summarized as follows:</p><p>•Hydraulic fracturing with water-only results in an overall increase in water yield for the hard rock borehole.</p><p>•Hydraulic fracturing with injection of sand as propping agent also leads to an increased water yield.</p><p>•The use of sand as propping agent seems to be more required in fractures with high counter pressure, in this study higher than approximately 40 bars, compared with fractures with lower counter pressure. The particle size of the sand should also be adjusted to the appearing counter pressure, and injection of coarser sand is recommended in fractures with lower counter pressures.</p><p>•Comparing the results from the hydraulic fracturing performed at Bryn and EAB shows that the pressure levels, required to create new fractures, varied considerably. The maximum pressures present at Bryn were higher than the corresponding pressures at EAB. At Bryn 70% (44 out of 63) of the pressure-time curves from the hydraulic fracturing with water-only were interpreted as initiation or reopening of fractures, while the number for EAB was 97% (36 out of 37). The lower degree of fracturing at Bryn is likely to be a result of high rock stresses and high tensile strength of the bedrock, also confirmed by the results from the rock stress measurements performed at Bryn. Considering the bedrock at EAB, characterized as nodular limestone, the tensile strength is assumed to be less than the values for the low-metamorphic sandstone present at Bryn.</p><p>•The infiltration rate in the central boreholes is a critical factor for the energy extraction and a successful operation of ground source heat pump systems based on circulating groundwater. Results from the short-period circulation tests accomplished at Bryn and EAB show that the infiltration rate in the central borehole at Bryn (approximately 2500 litres/hour) was too low to obtain a satisfactory operation of the plant, while the infiltration rate at EAB (14000 litres/hour) was sufficient to achieve profitability. Under the actual conditions, a reduction in the construction costs, i.e. the drilling costs, for a conventional ground source heat pump system with single U-collectors in vertical boreholes, of more than 50% were achieved for the pilot plant at EAB when the energy extraction from water is more than 105 MWh. The large difference in the infiltration rate between Bryn and EAB was probably related to: (1) Large initial differences in the borehole yield prior to hydraulic fracturing (<560 litres/hour at Bryn and >6300 litres/hour at EAB). Nodular limestone generally has high permeability, while compact sandstone rocks are expected to have low permeability. (2) Hydraulic fracturing was most successful at EAB. (3) The higher rock stress level present at Bryn compared to EAB will increase the tendency to tighten the opened fractures, even the fractures with injected sand •The FEFLOW-modelling of the pilot plant at Bryn and EAB emphasized the important relation between the available heat exchange area in the bedrock, the thermal conductivity of the bedrock, and the energy potential. </p><p>•The increased borehole yields achieved by hydraulic fracturing in this study, and the improved, reliable and cost-effective hydraulic fracturing techniques in crystalline bedrock, will probably increase the interest for groundwater as a domestic water supply for small- to medium sized water works.</p>

<p>The purpose with the work is to study Fortums activities with hydro power plants, dams and reservoirs mainly in a premise jurisdictional perspective and to show how GIS would be a helpful tool for the future.</p><p>A great deal of the information that the Generation Hydro-division at Fortum are managing have a spatial element. That means that it is possible to spatially join this information to a geographical polygon, line or point. This information is today gathered from several different sources, such as files, paper maps and digital data of several kinds. A Geographic Information System (GIS), as and aid besides the ordinary tools should be an effective support in the everyday work with questions of a premise jurisdictional nature.</p><p>The goal of this work is to account for how to organize, present and analyse geographic information. We will show how to link from the map to traditional tools such as calculation- and register programs. Linking to documents of different formats and to pictures will also be demonstrated.</p><p>Gathered and processed data in different formats and from different sources will result in a GIS-application overlooking two separate control areas. For the lower parts of the river Ljusnan in the municipalities of Bollnäs and Söderhamn it will be accounted for the handling of hydro power plants. The other area includes the municipalities of Arvika and Eda in the county of Värmland, in which the handling of dams and reservoirs also will be incuded. In the attempt to give suggestions of different solutions the two areas diverge somewhat in the matter of drawing manners and scales.</p> / <p>Syftet med examensarbetet är att studera Fortums verksamhet med kraftstationer, dammar och regleringsmagasin ur i första hand ett fastighetsrättsligt perspektiv att visa hur GIS kan vara ett lämpligt hjälpmedel i den framtida verksamheten.</p><p>En betydande del av den information, som hanteras av avdelningen Generation Hydro på Fortum, har en geografisk anknytning. Det innebär att den går att koppla till en yta, en linje eller en punkt i geografin. Idag hämtas sådan information från flera olika källor, däribland pärmar, papperskartor och i olika former av dataformat. Ett geografiskt informationssystem, GIS, som hjälpmedel vid sidan av befintliga hjälpmedel bör vara ett effektivt stöd i det vardagliga arbetet med fastighetsrättsliga frågor.</p><p>Målsättningen med examensarbetet är dels att redovisa hur man kan organisera, presentera och analysera geografisk information. Dels ska redovisning göras av hur man länkar från kartan till traditionella verktyg och information i form av kalkyl- och registerprogram samt dokument i olika format och länkningar till bilder. Användningen av kartor i olika format ska visas.</p><p>Utifrån diverse data i olika format från olika källor tas förslag på GIS-lösningar fram över två testområden. För Ljusnans nedre del i Bollnäs och Söderhamns kommuner redovisas hantering av kraftstationer. Det andra området innefattar Arvika och Eda kommuner i Värmland, i vilka även hantering av dammar och regleringsmagasin innefattas. För att ge exempel på olika lösningar skiljer sig utformningen av förslagen av de två områdena något vad gäller ritmanér och skalområden.</p>

The use of improved equipment and methodology can result in considerable reductions in the drilling costs for medium- to large sized ground source heat pump system in crystalline bedrock. The main point has been to use special techniques within hydraulic fracturing to create a larger heat exchange area in the bedrock, and thus a greater energy extraction per borehole. The energy extraction is based on circulating groundwater. Stimulation with hydraulic fracturing is a well known technique in order to improve borehole yields for drinking water-, oil-, and geothermal purposes. A procedure for injection of propping agents in selected borehole sections, and custom-made equipment for hydraulic fracturing in crystalline bedrock, a double packer, have been developed in this study. The propping agents are likely to ensure a permanent improvement of the hydraulic conductivity in a long-run perspective. In addition to a pre-test, a comprehensive test programme has been performed at each of the two pilot plants at Bryn and at the former property of Energiselskapet Asker og Bærum (EAB) in Bærum municipality outside Oslo, Norway. A total of 125 stimulations with hydraulic fracturing using water-only and hydraulic fracturing with injection of sand have been performed in 9 boreholes. Test pumping and geophysical logging (temperature, electrical conductivity, gamma radiation, optical televiewer and flow measurements) have been carried out in order to document the effect of the hydraulic fracturing. The pilot plants at Bryn and EAB, where the ground source heat pump systems are based on circulating groundwater, have demonstrated the short-period energy extraction, limitations and opportunities of the concept for hydraulic fracturing and increased energy extraction in different geological and hydrogeological areas. The bedrock at Bryn and EAB is characterized as a low-metamorphic sandstone and a nodular limestone, respectively. At Bryn, the five boreholes were organised with a central borehole encircled by four satellite boreholes 13 metres away from the central borehole. The central borehole at EAB was flanked with two boreholes 16 and 20 metres away. In operation mode, groundwater was pumped from the satellite boreholes, heat exchanged, and re-injected into the groundwater magazine via the central borehole. Routine operation of the plants has not yet been initiated. The main findings from this study can be summarized as follows: •Hydraulic fracturing with water-only results in an overall increase in water yield for the hard rock borehole. •Hydraulic fracturing with injection of sand as propping agent also leads to an increased water yield. •The use of sand as propping agent seems to be more required in fractures with high counter pressure, in this study higher than approximately 40 bars, compared with fractures with lower counter pressure. The particle size of the sand should also be adjusted to the appearing counter pressure, and injection of coarser sand is recommended in fractures with lower counter pressures. •Comparing the results from the hydraulic fracturing performed at Bryn and EAB shows that the pressure levels, required to create new fractures, varied considerably. The maximum pressures present at Bryn were higher than the corresponding pressures at EAB. At Bryn 70% (44 out of 63) of the pressure-time curves from the hydraulic fracturing with water-only were interpreted as initiation or reopening of fractures, while the number for EAB was 97% (36 out of 37). The lower degree of fracturing at Bryn is likely to be a result of high rock stresses and high tensile strength of the bedrock, also confirmed by the results from the rock stress measurements performed at Bryn. Considering the bedrock at EAB, characterized as nodular limestone, the tensile strength is assumed to be less than the values for the low-metamorphic sandstone present at Bryn. •The infiltration rate in the central boreholes is a critical factor for the energy extraction and a successful operation of ground source heat pump systems based on circulating groundwater. Results from the short-period circulation tests accomplished at Bryn and EAB show that the infiltration rate in the central borehole at Bryn (approximately 2500 litres/hour) was too low to obtain a satisfactory operation of the plant, while the infiltration rate at EAB (14000 litres/hour) was sufficient to achieve profitability. Under the actual conditions, a reduction in the construction costs, i.e. the drilling costs, for a conventional ground source heat pump system with single U-collectors in vertical boreholes, of more than 50% were achieved for the pilot plant at EAB when the energy extraction from water is more than 105 MWh. The large difference in the infiltration rate between Bryn and EAB was probably related to: (1) Large initial differences in the borehole yield prior to hydraulic fracturing (&lt;560 litres/hour at Bryn and &gt;6300 litres/hour at EAB). Nodular limestone generally has high permeability, while compact sandstone rocks are expected to have low permeability. (2) Hydraulic fracturing was most successful at EAB. (3) The higher rock stress level present at Bryn compared to EAB will increase the tendency to tighten the opened fractures, even the fractures with injected sand •The FEFLOW-modelling of the pilot plant at Bryn and EAB emphasized the important relation between the available heat exchange area in the bedrock, the thermal conductivity of the bedrock, and the energy potential. •The increased borehole yields achieved by hydraulic fracturing in this study, and the improved, reliable and cost-effective hydraulic fracturing techniques in crystalline bedrock, will probably increase the interest for groundwater as a domestic water supply for small- to medium sized water works.

The purpose with the work is to study Fortums activities with hydro power plants, dams and reservoirs mainly in a premise jurisdictional perspective and to show how GIS would be a helpful tool for the future. A great deal of the information that the Generation Hydro-division at Fortum are managing have a spatial element. That means that it is possible to spatially join this information to a geographical polygon, line or point. This information is today gathered from several different sources, such as files, paper maps and digital data of several kinds. A Geographic Information System (GIS), as and aid besides the ordinary tools should be an effective support in the everyday work with questions of a premise jurisdictional nature. The goal of this work is to account for how to organize, present and analyse geographic information. We will show how to link from the map to traditional tools such as calculation- and register programs. Linking to documents of different formats and to pictures will also be demonstrated. Gathered and processed data in different formats and from different sources will result in a GIS-application overlooking two separate control areas. For the lower parts of the river Ljusnan in the municipalities of Bollnäs and Söderhamn it will be accounted for the handling of hydro power plants. The other area includes the municipalities of Arvika and Eda in the county of Värmland, in which the handling of dams and reservoirs also will be incuded. In the attempt to give suggestions of different solutions the two areas diverge somewhat in the matter of drawing manners and scales. / Syftet med examensarbetet är att studera Fortums verksamhet med kraftstationer, dammar och regleringsmagasin ur i första hand ett fastighetsrättsligt perspektiv att visa hur GIS kan vara ett lämpligt hjälpmedel i den framtida verksamheten. En betydande del av den information, som hanteras av avdelningen Generation Hydro på Fortum, har en geografisk anknytning. Det innebär att den går att koppla till en yta, en linje eller en punkt i geografin. Idag hämtas sådan information från flera olika källor, däribland pärmar, papperskartor och i olika former av dataformat. Ett geografiskt informationssystem, GIS, som hjälpmedel vid sidan av befintliga hjälpmedel bör vara ett effektivt stöd i det vardagliga arbetet med fastighetsrättsliga frågor. Målsättningen med examensarbetet är dels att redovisa hur man kan organisera, presentera och analysera geografisk information. Dels ska redovisning göras av hur man länkar från kartan till traditionella verktyg och information i form av kalkyl- och registerprogram samt dokument i olika format och länkningar till bilder. Användningen av kartor i olika format ska visas. Utifrån diverse data i olika format från olika källor tas förslag på GIS-lösningar fram över två testområden. För Ljusnans nedre del i Bollnäs och Söderhamns kommuner redovisas hantering av kraftstationer. Det andra området innefattar Arvika och Eda kommuner i Värmland, i vilka även hantering av dammar och regleringsmagasin innefattas. För att ge exempel på olika lösningar skiljer sig utformningen av förslagen av de två områdena något vad gäller ritmanér och skalområden.

Geoengineering is the intentional alteration of the Earth’s climate system. The international Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP) seeks to identify the potential benefits and side effects of geoengineering on the Earth's climate. This thesis examines the first two experiments from the contribution of the Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis to GeoMIP. In the first experiment (G1), atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations are quadrupled and the solar constant is reduced to offset the increased greenhouse gas forcing. In the second experiment (G2), atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations are increased at the rate of 1% per year and the solar constant is incrementally reduced to offset the greenhouse gas forcing. In concert with these experiments, results from two other experiments were analyzed, one in which the atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations are quadrupled one in which they are increased at the rate of 1% per. The results obtained are in broad agreement with earlier work, showing that solar radiation management geoengineering schemes can prevent an increase in mean global surface temperature as atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations increase. Though the mean global temperature remains constant while geoengineering is employed, there are regional and zonal differences from the control climate, with high latitude warming and cooling in the tropical and subtropical regions. In particular, the meridional temperature gradient is reduced compared to that of the control climate. The G2 experiment was very similar to the G1 experiment in terms of the spatial surface temperature changes, though the changes seen in the G2 experiment were less pronounced and the regions of statistical significance were smaller. During the geoengineering period, seasonal changes and a statistically significant decrease in global precipitation, particularly over the ocean were apparent in the G1 run. As with temperature, the spatial pattern of precipitation changes during the geoengineering period for G2 are similar to the same period in G1, but reduced in magnitude. However, most of the spatial changes to precipitation in the G2 experiment during geoengineering deployment fail to be statistically significant. Following geoengineering termination, the G1 experiment responds rapidly, with surface and ocean temperatures, NH and SH summer sea ice volume, AMOC transport volume and global precipitation following the same time evolution and reaching those same values found in the 4 × CO2 experiment’s first 10 years. Following geoengineering failure, the G2 run also experiences rapid climate change in all of the variables studied, but does not approach the first 10 years of the 1%CO2yr-1 experiment, because the forcings are quite different in the two runs. Taken together, these results suggest that, while geoengineering to reduce incoming solar radiation could offset the global temperature increase due to increased atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations, there would be regional warming and cooling, as well as both global and regional impacts on the hydrological cycle. These results also suggest that, should geoengineering suddenly stop, the Earth’s climate would react immediately, with rapid changes in nearly all of the climate variables examined. / Graduate

<p>In co-operation with the Geological Survey of Norway, 395 samples of topsoil, 44 bedrock samples and 24 samples of sand from sandboxes at kindergartens taken in Oslo, the capital city of Norway, were analysed for a wide range of elements. To get a measure on the bio-availability of arsenic, a five stage sequential extraction procedure was accomplished on a subset of 98 topsoil samples and on all 24 samples of sand from sandboxes. These fractions (i.e. “Exchangeable”, “Carbonate”, “Reducible substrate”, “Organic” and “Residual”) were analysed for arsenic. Bulk concentrations in a representative subset of 10 bedrock samples were determined by XRF analysis.</p><p>For the concentrations of the elements As, B, Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, P, Pb and Zn in soil, geologic sources are important, but human activity has had a large effect on concentrations in topsoil, especially in the central districts. At least 81% of the samples contain more arsenic than the Norm value for polluted soil used by the Norwegian authorities. For chromium, zinc and lead, the percentages are 65, 74 and 25 respectively. In topsoil, up to 50% of the arsenic is extractable in the exchangeable, the carbonate and the reducible substrate fractions, but only 2% of the samples exceeded the Norm value after the three extraction stages. After four stages of extraction, 69% of the samples exceeded the Norm value.</p><p>At 24 kindergartens in the central districts of Oslo, concentrations of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in topsoil samples are higher than in samples of sand from sandpits, but differences in arsenic are low. All topsoil samples and 63% of the sandbox samples exceed the arsenic Norm value for polluted soil used by the Norwegian authorities. Concentrations of at least one of the elements Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn exceed the Norm value in the topsoil. At two kindergartens all elements, except Cd, exceed the Norm value in the topsoil.</p><p>In the samples from the sandboxes, arsenic concentrations in the exchangeable, the carbonate and the reducible substrate fractions, lie at a higher level than in topsoil samples. Leakage of arsenic compounds from impregnated and painted wood have probably caused elevated concentrations of this element in the sand. At two kindergartens the cumulative arsenic content in samples from the sandboxes exceeds the Norm value of 2 mg/kg As for polluted soil already after two fractions (i.e. the “Exchangeable” and the “Carbonate” fraction). After three fractions, the arsenic content in sand at 5 kindergartens exceeds this value. After four fractions this number was still 5. Regarding soil, no kindergartens had a cumulative arsenic content after three stages of the extraction procedure. After four stages 16 kindergartens contained more arsenic than the Norwegian Norm value of 2 mg/kg As.</p><p>Bulk concentrations of metals, in the bedrock samples, are generally higher than the acid soluble concentrations. Differences are small for copper and zinc, somewhat higher for lead and nickel and considerably different for chromium. Acid soluble chromium concentrations in soil differ little when compared with acid soluble concentrations in bedrock, but are in general much lower than bulk concentrations in rock. Chromium is probably strongly incorporated in the mineral structure of rock samples and concentrated HNO3 cannot solubilize all chromium molecules. For copper, lead and zinc, the acid soluble concentrations in soil are higher than the bulk concentrations in bedrock. The parent rock material cannot be the only source for these elements in soils and various anthropogenic sources dispersed by air or water probably have major influence.</p><p>The enrichment of nickel in topsoil near highways in Oslo might be due to the bitumen content of road dust. The enrichment of chromium and copper might be due to wear and tear of cars and engine parts. There is no enrichment of cadmium and zinc in topsoil near highways. Concentrations of zinc in topsoil in Oslo are generally high, most probably because of industry. The possible addition of zinc from traffic to the topsoil is not observed, in this study.</p>