Yes / Smoking increases the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. However, several population studies also show a higher risk in people 3–5 years after smoking cessation than in continuing smokers. After 10–12 years the risk equates to that of never-smokers. Small cohort studies suggest diabetes control deteriorates temporarily during the first year after quitting. We examined whether or not quitting smoking was associated with altered diabetes control in a population study, for how long this association persisted, and whether or not this association was mediated by weight change. Methods We did a retrospective cohort study (Jan 1, 2005, to Dec 31, 2010) of adult smokers with type 2 diabetes using The Health Improvement Network (THIN), a large UK primary care database. We developed adjusted multilevel regression models to investigate the association between a quit event, smoking abstinence duration, change in HbA1c, and the mediating effect of weight change. Findings 10 692 adult smokers with type 2 diabetes were included. 3131 (29%) quit smoking and remained abstinent for at least 1 year. After adjustment for potential confounders, HbA1c increased by 0·21% (95% CI 0·17–0·25; p<0·001; [2·34 mmol/mol (95% CI 1·91–2·77)]) within the first year after quitting. HbA1c decreased as abstinence continued and became comparable to that of continual smokers after 3 years. This increase in HbA1c was not mediated by weight change. Interpretation In type 2 diabetes, smoking cessation is associated with deterioration in glycaemic control that lasts for 3 years and is unrelated to weight gain. At a population level, this temporary rise could increase microvascular complications.

Yes / Introduction The Community Ageing Research 75+ Study (CARE75+) is a longitudinal cohort study collecting an extensive range of health, social and economic data, with a focus on frailty, independence and quality of life in older age. CARE75+ is the first international experimental frailty research cohort designed using Trial within Cohorts (TwiCs) methodology, to align applied epidemiological research with clinical trial evaluation of interventions to improve the health and well-being of older people living with frailty. Methods and analysis Prospective cohort study using a TwiCs design. One thousand community-dwelling older people (≥75 years) will be recruited from UK general practices. Nursing home residents, those with an estimated life expectancy of 3 months or less and people receiving palliative care will be excluded. Data collection assessments will be face to face in the person’s home at baseline, 6 months, 12 months, 24 months and 48 months, including assessments of frailty, cognition, mood, health-related quality of life, comorbidity, medications, resilience, loneliness, pain and self-efficacy. A modified protocol for follow-up by telephone or web based will be offered at 6 months. Consent will be sought for data linkage and invitations to additional studies, including intervention studies using the TwiCs design. A blood sample biobank will be established for future basic science studies. Ethics and dissemination CARE75+ was approved by the NRES Committee Yorkshire and the Humber—Bradford Leeds 10 October 2014 (14/YH/1120). Formal written consent is sought if an individual is willing to participate and has capacity to provide informed consent. Consultee assent is sought if an individual lacks capacity. Study results will be disseminated in peer-reviewed scientific journals and scientific conferences. Key study results will be summarised and disseminated to all study participants via newsletters, local older people’s publications and local engagement events. Results will be reported on a bespoke CARE75+ website. / NIHR CLAHRC Yorkshire and Humber - www.clahrc-yh.nihr.ac.uk (study funding number IS-CLA-0113-10020) and supported by the NIHR CLAHRC South West Peninsula and West Midlands CLAHRC.

Objective: To determine whether use of cannabis in adolescence increases the risk for psychotic outcomes by affecting the incidence and persistence of subclinical expression of psychosis in the general population (that is, expression of psychosis below the level required for a clinical diagnosis). Design: Analysis of data from a prospective population based cohort study in Germany (early developmental stages of psychopathology study). Setting: Population based cohort study in Germany. Participants: 1923 individuals from the general population, aged 14-24 at baseline. Main outcome measure: Incidence and persistence of subthreshold psychotic symptoms after use of cannabis in adolescence. Cannabis use and psychotic symptoms were assessed at three time points (baseline, T2 (3.5 years), T3 (8.4 years)) over a 10 year follow-up period with the Munich version of the composite international diagnostic interview (M-CIDI). Results: In individuals who had no reported lifetime psychotic symptoms and no reported lifetime cannabis use at baseline, incident cannabis use over the period from baseline to T2 increased the risk of later incident psychotic symptoms over the period from T2 to T3 (adjusted odds ratio 1.9, 95% confidence interval 1.1 to 3.1; P=0.021). Furthermore, continued use of cannabis increased the risk of persistent psychotic symptoms over the period from T2 to T3 (2.2, 1.2 to 4.2; P=0.016). The incidence rate of psychotic symptoms over the period from baseline to T2 was 31% (152) in exposed individuals versus 20% (284) in non-exposed individuals; over the period from T2 to T3 these rates were 14% (108) and 8% (49), respectively. Conclusion: Cannabis use is a risk factor for the development of incident psychotic symptoms. Continued cannabis use might increase the risk for psychotic disorder by impacting on the persistence of symptoms.

Depression is common in people with coronary heart disease (CHD) and is associated with worse physical outcomes. The nature of the causal association between CHD and depression, and the mechanism underpinning the association of depression with worse physical outcomes, remains unclear. Perseverative negative thinking may contribute to the development of depression in people with CHD. The aim of this thesis was to investigate the prospective association of perseverative negative thinking with depression, anxiety and worse physical outcomes in people with CHD, and to explore factors that may mediate this association. First, a systematic review identified 30 studies, of which the majority found an association between measures of perseverative negative thinking and subsequent depression, anxiety or emotional distress in people with long term conditions. Studies that controlled for covariates showed more mixed results, though the majority (15 / 25) still supported a significant association, with effects being small in magnitude. Findings were limited mainly to the association of rumination and/or catastrophizing with subsequent depression, and study quality was limited. Next, in an observational prospective cohort study 169 inpatients and outpatients with recent acute coronary syndrome (ACS) completed self-report assessments of rumination (Ruminative Responses Scale brooding subscale), worry (Penn State Worry Questionnaire), depression (Patient Health Questionnaire-8), anxiety (Beck Anxiety Inventory), and health-related quality of life (EuroQol-5D health-related quality of life, Seattle Angina Questionnaire) after hospitalisation, and at 2 month and 6 month follow-up. Additionally, assessments of potential mechanistic factors (social support, problem solving, instrumental behaviours and negative cognitive biases) were made. Baseline brooding was a significant independent predictor of depression at 6 months after controlling for the effects of important confounding variables, accounting for 2% of the variance. Findings suggested that the association of brooding with depression may be explained by deficits in problem solving ability. Rumination and problem solving may provide useful targets for the development of evidence-based interventions to improve depression among people with CHD, although the findings presented here fall short of proving a causal relationship. Future trials could be used to investigate the causal nature of the association of rumination and problem solving with depression in people with ACS.

Purpose: To determine whether symptoms of dizziness and fall rates change due to routine cataract surgery and to determine the influence of visual and refractive factors on these common problems in older adults. Methods: Self-reported dizziness and falls were determined in 287 subjects (mean age of 76.5±6.3 years, 55% females) before and after routine cataract surgery for the first (81, 28%), second (109, 38%) and both eyes (97, 34%). Six-month falls rates were determined using self-reported retrospective data. Dizziness was determined using the short-form of the Dizziness Handicap Inventory. Results: The number of patients with dizziness reduced significantly after cataract surgery (52% vs. 38%; χ2 = 19.14 , p < 0.001), but the reduction in number of patients who fell in the 6-months post surgery was not significant (23% vs. 20%; χ2= 0.87, p=0.35). Multivariate logistic regression analyses found significant links between post-operative falls and change in spectacle type (increased risk if switched into multifocal spectacles). Post-operative dizziness was associated with changes in best eye visual acuity and changes in oblique astigmatic correction. Conclusions: Dizziness is significantly reduced by cataract surgery and this is linked with improvements in best eye visual acuity, although changes in oblique astigmatic correction increased dizziness. The lack of improvement in falls rate may be associated with switching into multifocal spectacle wear after surgery.

Objetivo: Descrever a prevalência do Aleitamento Materno (AM) e do Aleitamento Materno Exclusivo (AME) no quarto mês de vida e avaliar a sua associação com variáveis sócio-demográficas, comportamentais, nutricionais da mãe e variáveis do parto, nos Postos de saúde da cidade de Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil. Método: Os participantes foram 370 pares mãe-filho usuários de Unidades Básicas de Saúde (UBS) de Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul. As gestantes foram arroladas consecutivamente em sala de espera e foram acompanhadas até o quarto mês de vida da criança mediante contato telefônico no pós-parto imediato, e entrevista agendada na Unidade Básica de Saúde (UBS) no quarto mês pós-parto. Regressão de Poisson com variância robusta foi utilizada para estimar a associação entre o AM e os diferentes fatores, como também para verificar a associação entre o AME e fatores sociodemográficos, comportamentais e nutricionais. A Fração atribuível na população foi utilizada para avaliar a contribuição dos fatores associados modificáveis. Resultados: 92,6% das crianças iniciaram a amamentação e no quarto mês pós-parto 79,2 % ainda mamava no peito, sendo que 16% delas estavam em AME. Os alimentos mais precocemente introduzidos na dieta foram, a água, o leite de vaca e as fórmulas, já presentes na dieta de alguns bebês no primeiro mês de vida. Após análise multivariável, a escolaridade materna (RP = 1,64; IC 95%: 1,11 - 2,40) inferior a cinco anos, o fumo materno (RP = 1,56; IC95%: 1,09 - 2,22), o uso de bico (RP = 9,38; IC 95%: 3,90 - 22,59) e o baixo peso ao nascer (RP = 1,58; IC 95%: 1,00 - 2,48) se mostraram associados a uma menor prevalência de AM. Com relação ao AME, o uso de bico (RP = 1,14; IC 95%: 1,03 - 1,25), o trabalho materno (RP = 1,12; IC95%:1,03 - 1,21), o ganho de peso gestacional (RP = 1,09; IC 95%: 1,00 - 1,12) e a idade materna inferior a 19 anos (RP = 1,17 IC 95%: 1,03 - 1,25) estão associados com a introdução precoce de outros alimentos na dieta da criança. A ansiedade e depressão materna não se mostraram significativamente associadas ao AM nem ao AME. Conclusões: As prevalências do AM e do AME no quarto mês de vida ainda encontram-se baixas. Mesmo tendo um percentual elevado de crianças que iniciaram o AM, no quarto mês pós-parto somente 79,2 % delas continuava amamentando e, destas, apenas 16% estavam em AME. Os principais motivos de desmame referidos pelas mães foram o medo que a criança ficasse com fome e a falta de produção de leite. No quarto mês de vida, todos os tipos de alimentos já tinham sido ingeridos por algumas crianças pertencentes ao estudo. / Objective: To report the incidence of breastfeeding and exclusive breastfeeding at 4 months postpartum and to identify associated factors. Methods: Participants where 370 mother-infant pairs who were recruited consecutively from 10 different health care units from Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, and were followed up by phone and interview until the 4 months postpartum. Data collected included sociodemographic, behavioral and nutritional factors related to breastfeeding and exclusive breastfeeding. Poisson regression was used to identify the factors related to a less prevalence of breastfeeding and exclusive breastfeeding. Results: 92, 6% of the children initiated breastfeeding, and at 4 months of age, 79,2% still breastfeeding. Water, milk and formulas were the firsts products being introduced to the children´s diet, and being consumed at the first month of live by 20, 9%, 8,7% and 17,2% of the population, respectively. Breastfeeding was independently, negatively associated with less than 5 years of maternal schooling (RP = 1,64; 95% CI: 1,11 - 2,40), pacifier use (RP= 9,38; 95% CI: 3,90 – 22,59), maternal smoking (RP = 1,56; 95% CI: 1,09 – 2,22) and low birth weight (RP = 1,58; 95% CI: 1,00 - 2,48). Exclusive breastfeeding was independently associated with pacifier use (RP = 1,14; 95%CI: 1,03 - 1,25), mother being working or studying (RP = 1,12; 95% CI:1,03 - 1,21), gestational weight gain (RP = 1,09; 95% CI: 1,00 - 1,12) and maternal age under 19 years (RP = 1,17; 95% CI: 1,03 – 1,25). Conclusions: Breastfeeding and exclusive breastfeeding rates still low. Even having an elevated percent of breastfeeding initiation, at 4 months postpartum only 79,2% stilled breastfeeding and the exclusive breastfeeding rate was only 16%. The principal reasons for not breastfeeding at 4 months post-partum was being afraid the child was hungry and not producing breast milk. At 4 months of age, many children were already eating all kind of food.

Submitted by Daniella Santos (daniella.santos@ufma.br) on 2017-08-11T16:25:32Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Lilian Cavalcante.pdf: 2247557 bytes, checksum: 4945eb34fa27f507f7c034437b4eae18 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-08-11T16:25:32Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Lilian Cavalcante.pdf: 2247557 bytes, checksum: 4945eb34fa27f507f7c034437b4eae18 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-02-15 / Introduction: Obesity rates are rising significantly in the world. Cesarean delivery has been associated with increased obesity at all stages of life. Our objective was to evaluate the causal effect between cesarean delivery and body mass index in children. Methods: A cohort study was carried out, including 3,205 children between 1 and 3 years of age, born in 2010. After birth, 5,475 mothers and children were evaluated. Information on the type of delivery, maternal and child characteristics such as sociodemographic, morbidity and anthropometric conditions were collected. For the analysis of the causal effect a Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAG) was constructed to select the variables for minimum adjustment. Statistical analysis showed interchangeability between groups. Overweight in children by body mass index for age was defined by z> +2 score. Results: Of the 3,205 children evaluated (51.3% female), 48% were born by cesarean delivery, only 0.2% of the newborns were small for gestational age and 8.9% of the children were overweight. There was inadequacy of prenatal care in 37.8% of pregnancies. There is no causal relationship between cesarean delivery and body mass index in children between 1 and 3 years of age. Conclusion: The causal effect of cesarean section on the BMI of children was not observed. Through the methodology used, it was possible to attenuate possible biases of confounding and collision, and interchangeability between groups was observed. / Introdução: As taxas de obesidade estão aumentando significativamente no mundo. O parto cesáreo tem sido associado ao aumento de obesidade em todas as fases da vida. Nosso objetivo foi avaliar o efeito causal entre parto cesáreo e o índice de massa corporal em crianças. Métodos: Realizou-se um estudo do tipo coorte que incluiu 3.205 crianças entre 1 e 3 anos de idade, nascidas no ano de 2010. Após o nascimento, foram avaliados 5.475 mães e filhos. Informações sobre o tipo de parto, características maternas e do filho como condições sociodemográficas, morbidade e antropométricas foram coletadas. Para análise do efeito causal foi construído um Gráfico acíclico direcionado (DAG) para escolha das varáveis para ajuste mínimo. Após análise estatística foi verificado a permutabilidade entre os grupos. O excesso de peso nas crianças pelo índice de massa corporal para idade foi definido por escore z > +2. Resultado: Das 3.205 crianças avaliadas (51,3% do sexo feminino), 48% nasceram por parto cesáreo, apenas 0,2% dos recém nascidos foram pequenos para idade gestacional e 8,9% das crianças apresentaram excesso de peso .Houve inadequação do pré-natal em 37,8% das gestações. Não há relação de causa entre o parto cesáreo e índice de massa corporal em crianças entre 1 a 3 anos de idade. Conclusão: Não observou-se o efeito causal do parto cesáreo no IMC de crianças. Através da metodologia utilizada foi possível atenuar possíveis viéses de confundimento e colisão e foi observado permutabilidade entre os grupos.

This thesis assesses the effectiveness of the National Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT) programme in 3 sites in South Africa, and the quality of infant feeding counselling across four countries, Botswana, Kenya, Malawi and Uganda . Implementation and outcome of PMTCT services were very different across the 3 sites. The Paarl site is achieving results comparable to clinical trial studies with a HIV-free survival rate of 85% at 36 weeks, while Umlazi is somewhat lower (74%) and Rietvlei, with HIV-free survival of 64%. Maternal viral load, prematurity and site were independent risk factors for infection and/or death. The regression analysis suggests that some of this difference is explained by the differences in quality of health systems across the sites. Traditional risk factors (e.g. viral load, prematurity) do not seem to explain the substantial differences in HIV-free survival between the Paarl and Rietvlei sites. The overall mortality rate for HIV exposed infants in this cohort was 155 per 1000 live births at 36 weeks, a level higher than most other HIV exposed cohorts. The excess mortality is occurring almost completely amongst HIV infected infants who had a nine fold increased risk of mortality compared with HIV exposed but HIV negative infants. There was no significant difference in 36 week survival rates between those HIV exposed but uninfected infants and those who were not HIV exposed, Hazard ratio 0.7 (95% CI 0.3-1.5). With respect to HIV and infant feeding most health workers across the four countries (234/334, 70%) were unable to correctly estimate the transmission risks of breastfeeding. Exposure to PMTCT training made little difference to this. Infant feeding options were mentioned in 307 out of 640 (48%) observations of PMTCT counselling session and in only 35 (5.5%) were infant feeding issues discussed in any depth; of these 19 (54.3%) were rated as poor. South Africa was similar with only two out of thirty four HIV positive mothers being asked about essential conditions for safe formula feeding before a decision was made. This body of work has demonstrated that the gap between efficacy and effectiveness can be significant.

Background: Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative motor disorder. However, non-motor complications frequently alter the course of the disease. A particularly disabling non-motor symptom is dementia. Methods/Design: The study is designed as a multicentre prospective, observational cohort study of about 700 PD patients aged 45–80 years with or without dementia and PD-mild cognitive impairment (MCI). The patients will be recruited in eight specialized movement disorder clinics and will be followed for 36 months. Information about the patients’ functional status will be assessed at baseline and 6-/12- month intervals. In addition, 120 patients with dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) will be included. Well-established standardized questionnaires/tests will be applied for detailed neuropsychological assessment. In addition, patients will be asked to participate in modules including volumetric MRI, genetic parameters, and neuropsychology to detect risk factors, early diagnostic biomarkers and predictors for dementia in PD. Results: The study included 604 PD patients by March 2011; 56.3% were classified as having PD alone, with 30.6% of patients suffering from PD-MCI and 13.1% from PD with dementia. The mean age of the cohort was 68.6 ± 7.9 years, with a mean disease duration of 6.8 ± 5.4 years. There was a preponderance of patients in the earlier Hoehn and Yahr stages. Conclusion: The main aim of the study is to characterize the natural progression of cognitive impairment in PD and to identify factors which contribute to the evolution and/or progression of the cognitive impairment. To accomplish this aim we established a large cohort of PD patients without cognitive dysfunction, PD patients with MCI, and PD patients with dementia, to characterize these patients in a standardized manner, using imaging (serial structural MRI), genetic and proteomic methods in order to improve our understanding of the course of the PD process and the development of cognitive dysfunction and dementia in this disease. The inclusion of the DLB patients will start in the second quarter of 2011 in the BMBF-funded follow-up project LANDSCAPE.

Background: Cannabis use is considered a component cause of psychotic illness, interacting with genetic and other environmental risk factors. Little is known, however, about these putative interactions. The present study investigated whether an urban environment plays a role in moderating the effects of adolescent cannabis use on psychosis risk. Method: Prospective data (n=1923, aged 14–24 years at baseline) from the longitudinal population-based German Early Developmental Stages of Psychopathology cohort study were analysed. Urbanicity was assessed at baseline and defined as living in the city of Munich (1562 persons per km2; 4061 individuals per square mile) or in the rural surroundings (213 persons per km2; 553 individuals per square mile). Cannabis use and psychotic symptoms were assessed three times over a 10-year follow-up period using the Munich version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Results: Analyses revealed a significant interaction between cannabis and urbanicity [10.9% adjusted difference in risk, 95% confidence interval (CI) 3.2–18.6, p=0.005]. The effect of cannabis use on follow-up incident psychotic symptoms was much stronger in individuals who grew up in an urban environment (adjusted risk difference 6.8%, 95% CI 1.0–12.5, p=0.021) compared with individuals from rural surroundings (adjusted risk difference −4.1%, 95% CI −9.8 to 1.6, p=0.159). The statistical interaction was compatible with substantial underlying biological synergism. Conclusions: Exposure to environmental influences associated with urban upbringing may increase vulnerability to the psychotomimetic effects of cannabis use later in life.