Supercapacitors are one of the most important electrochemical energy storage and conversion devices, however low ionic conductivity of solid state polymer electrolytes and the poor accessibility of the ions to the active sites in the porous electrode will cause low performance for all-solid-state supercapacitors and will limit their application. The objective of the dissertation is to improve the performance of all-solid-state supercapactor by improving electrolyte conductivity and solving accessibility problem of the ions to the active sites. The low ionic conductivity (10-8 S/cm) of poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) limits its application as an electrolyte. Since PEO is a semicrystal polymer and the ion conduction take place mainly in the amorphous regions of the PEO/Lithium salt complex, improvements in the percentage of amorphous phase in PEO or increasing the charge carrier concentration and mobility could increase the ionic conductivity of PEO electrolyte. Hot pressing along with the additions of different lithium salts, inorganic fillers and plasticizers were applied to improve the ionic conductivity of PEO polymer electrolytes. Four electrode methods were used to evaluate the conductivity of PEO based polymer electrolytes. Results show that adding certain lithium salts, inorganic fillers, and plasticizers could improve the ionic conductivity of PEO electrolytes up 10-4 S/cm. Further hot pressing treatment could improve the ionic conductivity of PEO electrolytes up to 10-3 S/cm. The conductivity improvement after hot pressing treatment is elucidated as that the spherulite crystal phase is convert into the fringed micelle crystal phase or the amorphous phase of PEO electrolytes. PEO electrolytes were added into active carbon as a binder and an ion conductor, so as to provide electrodes with not only ion conduction, but also the accessibility of ion to the active sites of electrodes. The NaI/I2 mediator was added to improve the conductivity of PEO electrolyte and provide pseudocapacitance for all-solid-state supercapacitors. Impedance, cyclic voltammetry, and gavalnostatic charge/discharge measurements were conducted to evaluate the electrochemical performance of PEO polymer electrolytes based all-solid-state supercapacitors. Results demonstrate that the conductivity of PEO electrolyte could be improved to 0.1 S/cm with a mediator concentration of 50wt%. A high conductivity in the PEO electrolyte with mediator is an indication of a high electron exchange rate between the mediator and mediator. The high electron exchange rates at mediator carbon interface and between mediator and mediator are essential in order to obtain a high response rate and high power. This automatically solves the accessibility problem. With the addition of NaI/I2 mediator, the specific capacitance increased more than 30 folds, specific power increased almost 20 folds, and specific energy increased around 10 folds. Further addition of filler to the electrodes along with the mediator could double the specific capacitor and specific power of the all-solid-state supercapacitor. The stability of the corresponded supercapacitor is good within 2000 cycles.

In this study, the carbon electrode of supercapacitor was fabricated by using mesocarbon microbeads. For finding the optimal processing parameters of carbon electrode, the effects of specific surface area of activated carbon, the amount of carbon black and binder, and various electrolytes on the capacitative properties of supercapacitor are investigated. To fabricate the composite electrode of supercapacitor, NiO and WO3 thin films were deposited respectively on the carbon electrode by electron beam evaporation. The influences of various scan rates of cyclic voltammograms (CV) on the characteristic of capacitance are studied. The charge-discharge efficiency and life time of the composite electrode are also discussed. Experimental results reveal that the optimum carbon electrode can be obtained using mesocarbon microbeads with high specific surface area (2685 m2/g) and larger pore volume (0.6 cm3/g) and adding 10 wt.% carbon black and 2wt.% binder. The specific capacitances of carbon electrodes in 1 M KOH and 1 M Et4NBF4 are 230.8 F/g and 221.5 F/g, respectively. Besides, the XRD and SEM results showed that NiO and WO3 thin films on composite electrode are sheet-liked crystal structure and stone-liked amorphous structure, respectively. The composite electrode exhibits better capacitance properties than those of carbon electrode at high scan rate by CV analysis. It reveals the promotion of the capacitative property of supercapacitor at higher power density and the improving of the decay property in capacitance at high scan rate. Finally, in the test of charge-discharge efficiency and life time, the charge-discharge efficiency is near 100% after 5000 cycles and it still retains good adhesion between electrode material and substrate.

The price of crude glycerol has significantly decreased worldwide because of its oversupply. Many chemical and biological processes have been proposed to transform glycerol into numerous value-added products, such as glycolic acid, 1,3-propanediol (1,3-PDO), 1,2-propanediol (1,2-PDO), glyceric acid, and lactic acid. However, these processes suffer from several drawbacks, including high production cost. Therefore, in this study, a simple and robust electrochemical synthesiswas developed to convert glycerol into various value-added compounds. This study reports for the first time the use of Amberlyst-15 as a reaction mediumand redox catalyst for electrochemical conversion of glycerol. In the first part, the electrochemical performance of Amberlyst-15 over platinum (Pt)electrode was compared with that of conventional acidic (H2SO4) and alkaline (NaOH) media. Other parameters such as reaction temperature [room temperature (27°C) to 80 °C] and applied current (1.0 A to 3.0 A) were also examined. Under the optimized experimental condition, this novel electrocatalytic method successfully converted glycerol into glycolic acid after 8 h of electrolysis, with a yield of 45% and selectivity of 65%, as well as to glyceric acid after 3 h of electrolysis, with a yield of 27% and selectivity of 38%. In the second part of this study, two types of cathode electrodes, namely, activated carbon composite(ACC) and carbon black diamond (CBD) electrodes, were used in electrochemical conversion of glycerol. To the best of our knowledge, electrochemical studies of glycerol conversion using these electrodes have not been reported yet. Glycerol was also successfully reduced to lactic acid, 1,2-PDO, and 1,3-PDO, in addition to oxidation compounds (e.g. glycolic acid). Three operating parameters, namely, catalyst amount (6.4% to 12.8% w/v), reaction temperature [room temperature (27 °C) to 80 °C], and applied current (1.0 A to 3.0 A), were tested. In the presence of 9.6% w/v Amberlyst-15 at 2.0 A and 80 °C, the selectivity of glycolic acid can reach 72% and 68% (with yield of 66% and 58%) for ACC and CBD electrodes, respectively. Lactic acid was obtained as the second largest compound, withselectivity of 16% and yield of 15% for the ACC electrode and 27% selectivity and 21% yield for the CBD electrode. Finally, electro-oxidation and electroreduction of glycerol were performed in a two-compartment cell separated by a cation exchange membrane (Nafion 117). This study only focused on the electroreduction region. Three cathode electrodes (Pt, ACC, and CBD) were evaluated under the following conditions: 2.0 A, 80 °C, and 9.6% w/v Amberlyst-15. ACC demonstrated excellent performance in the electroreduction study and successfully reduced glycerol to 1,2-PDO, with a high selectivity of 85%. The selectivity of 1,2-PDO on Pt and CBD was 61% and 68%, respectively. Acetol and diethylene glycol were also obtained. The reaction mechanisms underlying the formation of these products are then proposed.

O comportamento eletroquímico do inseticida fipronil, 5-amino-[(2,6-dicloro)-4-trifluormetil-fenil]-4-trifluormetil-sulfinil-1H pirazol-3-carbonitrila, foi investigado pelas técnicas de voltametria cíclica, voltametria de onda quadrada, eletrólise a potencial controlado e voltametria de redissolução de onda quadrada utilizando o eletrodo compósito de grafite-poliuretana. O fipronil apresentou um comportamento de um sistema irreversível com potencial de pico de 0,95 V. O processo de transferência de carga apresentou um controle misto de difusão e adsorção de espécies na superfície do eletrodo. O pH 8,0 foi escolhido para o desenvolvimento de uma metodologia eletroanalítica para determinação do composto. Os estudos por eletrólise a potencial controlado mostraram que a oxidação do inseticida envolve a participação de um elétron. Na voltametria de onda quadrada, o melhor sinal de corrente foi obtido com os valores de freqüência de 100 s-1, amplitude de 50 mV e incremento de varredura de 2 mV. Os limites de detecção e de quantificação foram calculados pelo método da IUPAC e pelo método de extrapolação da curva analítica. A metodologia desenvolvida foi comparada com o método oficial de análise, a cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência com detecção de ultravioleta por meio do método de curvas de calibração por meio de adição externa de padrão e foi observada concordância entre os dois métodos no intervalo de concentração estudado. Nos estudos de pré-concentração, as melhores condições encontradas foram um potencial de acumulação de 0,5 V e tempo de acumulação de 120 s. Amostras de águas naturais, formulação veterinária e leite foram analisadas pelos procedimentos propostos. / The electrochemical behavior of the insecticide fipronil, 5-amine-[(2,6-dichloro)-4-trifluoromethyl-phenyl]-4-trifluoromethyl-sulfynil-1H pyrazole-3-carbonitrile, was investigated by cyclic voltammetry, square wave voltammetry, controlled potential electrolysis and square wave stripping voltammetry using the graphite-polyurethane composite electrode. The electrochemical behavior of fipronil is a typical irreversible system and a peak potential at 0.95 V was observed. The charge transference process is controlled by diffusion and adsorption of species at electrode surface. The pH value 8.0 was chosen in order to develop an electroanalytical methodology for the determination the compound. Controlled potential electrolysis studies showed that the fipronil oxidation involves the participation of one electron. Square wave voltammetry investigations showed that the best current intensity was obtained using the values of a frequency of 100 s-1, pulse amplitude of 50 mV and scan increment of 2 mV. The limits of detection and quantification were calculated the IUPAC equations and statistics equations. The developed methodology was compared to the official analysis method, high performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection, using the calibration curves method. Both procedures are in agreement with the concentration-studied range. Stripping analysis studies were done in order to determine fipronil traces in natural water. The best conditions found were the accumulation potential of 0.5 V and accumulation time of 120 s. The electroanalytical methodology, based on the square wave voltammetry, was applied for the analysis of natural water samples, a commercial veterinary formulation and milk samples.

A confecção e avaliação do desempenho voltamétrico de eletrodos compósitos à base de resina epóxi comercial Araldite ® utilizada como fase aglutinante e pó de grafite como fase condutora, na confecção dos eletrodos compósitos foi realizada. A resina foi preparada seguindo instruções do fabricante e adicionada a uma quantidade de pó de grafite para obter eletrodos contendo 50, 60 e 70% de grafite (m/m). Tais compósitos foram caracterizados fisicamente quanto à reprodutibilidade da resposta voltamétrica, resistência ôhmica e área efetiva em função da composição grafite/Araldite ®, sendo 70% (grafite, m/m) a que ofereceu melhores resultados, em termos de repetibilidade de resposta e corrente de pico. O teor real de grafite foi determinado por termogravimetria. Os intervalos úteis de potenciais para uso dos eletrodos compósitos também foram avaliados em diferentes eletrólitos. Finalmente, os eletrodos compósitos foram avaliados na determinação de atenolol, uma droga antihipertensiva, e dopamina, um neurotransmissor central do grupo das catecolaminas. Em todos os casos, o eletrodo compósito foi mais sensível na determinação dos dois analitos, quando comparado ao eletrodo de carbono vítreo. A dopamina foi determinada por voltametria de pulso diferencial (DPV). O limite de detecção foi de 0,61 µmol L-1e a resposta linear foi observada no intervalo de 4,0 a 95 µmol L-1. Os resultados obtidos na determinação da dopamina em formulação farmacêutica concordaram com os resultados obtidos com o método comparativo cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (HPLC), com 95% de confiança. O atenolol também foi determinado por DPV, com limite de detecção da ordem de 2,23 µmol L-1, com resposta linear entre 4,45 e 84,7 µmol L-1. A determinação de atenolol, em formulações farmacêuticas, apresentou resultados que concordam com o método comparativo HPLC, com 95% de confiança. O atenolol também foi determinado em amostras de águas naturais, com recuperações entre 92 e 115%. / The development and evaluation of the voltammetric behavior of composite electrodes prepared with graphite as a conducting phase and commercial epoxy resin Araldite ® as an insulating phase was performed. The resin was prepared according to instructions of the manufacturer and mixed with a suitable amount of graphite in order to prepare composites with 50, 60 and 70% of graphite (w/w). The composites were characterized in relation to their reproducibility of the cyclic voltammetric response, ohmic resistance, and repeatability of the effective area as a function of the Araldite ®/graphite ratio. The best repeatability of area as well as the higher peak currents was obtained with the 70% (graphite, w/w) composition using K3[Fe(CN)6] in KCl medium. The useful potential windows were also evaluated in different supporting electrolytes and pH ranges. Finally the composite electrodes were applied in the determination of the anti-hypertensive atenolol and the cathecolamine neurotransmitter dopamine. The composite electrodes were more sensitive to both analytes when compared to the glassy carbon. Dopamine was determined using differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) with linear dynamic range between 4.0 and 95 µmol L-1 and limit of detection 0.61 µmol L-1. The results agreed with those from high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) within a 95% confidence interval. Atenolol was also determined by DPV with a 4.45 - 84.7 µmol L-1 linear range and 2.23 µmol L-1. The determination of atenolol in pharmaceutical formulations agreed with the HPLC method in a 95 % confidence interval. When applied to natural water samples spiked with the analyte, recoveries of 92 to 115% were found.

Neste trabalho, um eletrodo compósito à base de grafite e poliuretana (EGPU) 60% (grafite, m/m) foi avaliado quanto ao seu potencial para determinação dos antibióticos da família das tetraciclinas em amostras de água natural, de urina bovina e humana, e em amostras de leite bovino e humano. Visando desenvolver métodos simples, de baixo custo e com baixa geração de resíduos, o eletrodo foi usado sem modificação, para atender a estes propósitos e considerando os níveis de concentração das tetraciclinas nas amostras biológicas. A otimização dos parâmetros em voltametria de pulso diferencial (DPV) foi realizada para a determinação dos antibióticos tetraciclina (TC), oxitetraciclina (OTC) e clortetraciclina (CTC) em tampão fosfato 0,10 mol L-1 pH 2,3, permitindo atingir limites de detecção de 2,6 µmol L-1, 1,7 µmol L-1 e 0,82 µmol L-1, respectivamente, sem a necessidade de renovação da superfície, entre as medidas sucessivas. Durante as determinações de TC e OTC em amostras de água natural e purificada, foram observadas recuperações entre 92,6% e 100%, após etapa de pré-concentração. As amostras de urina foram acidificadas, em seguida centrifugadas para a remoção de partículas sólidas e proteínas. A TC e OTC foram determinadas diretamente, na amostra de urina tratada e diluída em tampão fosfato 0,10 mol L-1 pH 2,3. Durante a determinação de TC e OTC nas amostras de urina, após o preparo da amostra, foram obtidas recuperações entre 96% e 100%. As amostras de leite bovino e humano foram intencionalmente contaminadas com TC. Após preparo das amostras, estas foram submetidas à extração, usando cartucho para extração em fase sólida (SPE). Após eluição e retomada do analito retido no cartucho, a quantidade de TC presente nas amostras foi determinada pelo método de adição de padrão, usando DPV, com EGPU 60% (grafite, m/m). Foram obtidas recuperações entre 76% e 103% para as amostras de leite bovino e recuperações entre 91% e 100 % para as amostras de leite humano, que mostram que o eletrodo proposto pode ser usado neste tipo de determinação com as características postuladas acima. / A bare graphite-polyurethane composite electrode 60% (graphite, m/m) (GPUE) was evaluated in the determination of tetracycline (TC) class antibiotics in natural water as well as, in human and bovine urine and in milk samples. Thus, a DPV procedure was optimized for the determination of tetracycline, oxytetracycline (OTC) and chlortetracycline (CTC) antibiotics in phosphate buffer 0.10 mol L-1 pH 2.3, resulting in LOD of 2.6 µmol L-1, 1.7 µmol L-1 and 0.82 µmol L-1, respectively. During the determination of TC and OTC in the water samples, recoveries between 92.6 and 100% were found, after pre-concentration stage. The urine samples were submitted to acidification followed by centrifugation to remove solids and proteins. During the determination of TC and OTC in urine samples, after pre-treatment of urine, recoveries between 96 and 100% were found. The composite electrode was also evaluated in the determination of TC in the bovine and human milk samples. During the determination of TC in milk, recoveries between 76 and 103% were found for bovine milk and recoveries between 91 and 100% were found for human milk after pre-concentration stage, showing the feasibility of the procedure.

O comportamento eletroquímico do inseticida fipronil, 5-amino-[(2,6-dicloro)-4-trifluormetil-fenil]-4-trifluormetil-sulfinil-1H pirazol-3-carbonitrila, foi investigado pelas técnicas de voltametria cíclica, voltametria de onda quadrada, eletrólise a potencial controlado e voltametria de redissolução de onda quadrada utilizando o eletrodo compósito de grafite-poliuretana. O fipronil apresentou um comportamento de um sistema irreversível com potencial de pico de 0,95 V. O processo de transferência de carga apresentou um controle misto de difusão e adsorção de espécies na superfície do eletrodo. O pH 8,0 foi escolhido para o desenvolvimento de uma metodologia eletroanalítica para determinação do composto. Os estudos por eletrólise a potencial controlado mostraram que a oxidação do inseticida envolve a participação de um elétron. Na voltametria de onda quadrada, o melhor sinal de corrente foi obtido com os valores de freqüência de 100 s-1, amplitude de 50 mV e incremento de varredura de 2 mV. Os limites de detecção e de quantificação foram calculados pelo método da IUPAC e pelo método de extrapolação da curva analítica. A metodologia desenvolvida foi comparada com o método oficial de análise, a cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência com detecção de ultravioleta por meio do método de curvas de calibração por meio de adição externa de padrão e foi observada concordância entre os dois métodos no intervalo de concentração estudado. Nos estudos de pré-concentração, as melhores condições encontradas foram um potencial de acumulação de 0,5 V e tempo de acumulação de 120 s. Amostras de águas naturais, formulação veterinária e leite foram analisadas pelos procedimentos propostos. / The electrochemical behavior of the insecticide fipronil, 5-amine-[(2,6-dichloro)-4-trifluoromethyl-phenyl]-4-trifluoromethyl-sulfynil-1H pyrazole-3-carbonitrile, was investigated by cyclic voltammetry, square wave voltammetry, controlled potential electrolysis and square wave stripping voltammetry using the graphite-polyurethane composite electrode. The electrochemical behavior of fipronil is a typical irreversible system and a peak potential at 0.95 V was observed. The charge transference process is controlled by diffusion and adsorption of species at electrode surface. The pH value 8.0 was chosen in order to develop an electroanalytical methodology for the determination the compound. Controlled potential electrolysis studies showed that the fipronil oxidation involves the participation of one electron. Square wave voltammetry investigations showed that the best current intensity was obtained using the values of a frequency of 100 s-1, pulse amplitude of 50 mV and scan increment of 2 mV. The limits of detection and quantification were calculated the IUPAC equations and statistics equations. The developed methodology was compared to the official analysis method, high performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection, using the calibration curves method. Both procedures are in agreement with the concentration-studied range. Stripping analysis studies were done in order to determine fipronil traces in natural water. The best conditions found were the accumulation potential of 0.5 V and accumulation time of 120 s. The electroanalytical methodology, based on the square wave voltammetry, was applied for the analysis of natural water samples, a commercial veterinary formulation and milk samples.

A confecção e avaliação do desempenho voltamétrico de eletrodos compósitos à base de resina epóxi comercial Araldite ® utilizada como fase aglutinante e pó de grafite como fase condutora, na confecção dos eletrodos compósitos foi realizada. A resina foi preparada seguindo instruções do fabricante e adicionada a uma quantidade de pó de grafite para obter eletrodos contendo 50, 60 e 70% de grafite (m/m). Tais compósitos foram caracterizados fisicamente quanto à reprodutibilidade da resposta voltamétrica, resistência ôhmica e área efetiva em função da composição grafite/Araldite ®, sendo 70% (grafite, m/m) a que ofereceu melhores resultados, em termos de repetibilidade de resposta e corrente de pico. O teor real de grafite foi determinado por termogravimetria. Os intervalos úteis de potenciais para uso dos eletrodos compósitos também foram avaliados em diferentes eletrólitos. Finalmente, os eletrodos compósitos foram avaliados na determinação de atenolol, uma droga antihipertensiva, e dopamina, um neurotransmissor central do grupo das catecolaminas. Em todos os casos, o eletrodo compósito foi mais sensível na determinação dos dois analitos, quando comparado ao eletrodo de carbono vítreo. A dopamina foi determinada por voltametria de pulso diferencial (DPV). O limite de detecção foi de 0,61 µmol L-1e a resposta linear foi observada no intervalo de 4,0 a 95 µmol L-1. Os resultados obtidos na determinação da dopamina em formulação farmacêutica concordaram com os resultados obtidos com o método comparativo cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (HPLC), com 95% de confiança. O atenolol também foi determinado por DPV, com limite de detecção da ordem de 2,23 µmol L-1, com resposta linear entre 4,45 e 84,7 µmol L-1. A determinação de atenolol, em formulações farmacêuticas, apresentou resultados que concordam com o método comparativo HPLC, com 95% de confiança. O atenolol também foi determinado em amostras de águas naturais, com recuperações entre 92 e 115%. / The development and evaluation of the voltammetric behavior of composite electrodes prepared with graphite as a conducting phase and commercial epoxy resin Araldite ® as an insulating phase was performed. The resin was prepared according to instructions of the manufacturer and mixed with a suitable amount of graphite in order to prepare composites with 50, 60 and 70% of graphite (w/w). The composites were characterized in relation to their reproducibility of the cyclic voltammetric response, ohmic resistance, and repeatability of the effective area as a function of the Araldite ®/graphite ratio. The best repeatability of area as well as the higher peak currents was obtained with the 70% (graphite, w/w) composition using K3[Fe(CN)6] in KCl medium. The useful potential windows were also evaluated in different supporting electrolytes and pH ranges. Finally the composite electrodes were applied in the determination of the anti-hypertensive atenolol and the cathecolamine neurotransmitter dopamine. The composite electrodes were more sensitive to both analytes when compared to the glassy carbon. Dopamine was determined using differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) with linear dynamic range between 4.0 and 95 µmol L-1 and limit of detection 0.61 µmol L-1. The results agreed with those from high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) within a 95% confidence interval. Atenolol was also determined by DPV with a 4.45 - 84.7 µmol L-1 linear range and 2.23 µmol L-1. The determination of atenolol in pharmaceutical formulations agreed with the HPLC method in a 95 % confidence interval. When applied to natural water samples spiked with the analyte, recoveries of 92 to 115% were found.

Neste trabalho, um eletrodo compósito à base de grafite e poliuretana (EGPU) 60% (grafite, m/m) foi avaliado quanto ao seu potencial para determinação dos antibióticos da família das tetraciclinas em amostras de água natural, de urina bovina e humana, e em amostras de leite bovino e humano. Visando desenvolver métodos simples, de baixo custo e com baixa geração de resíduos, o eletrodo foi usado sem modificação, para atender a estes propósitos e considerando os níveis de concentração das tetraciclinas nas amostras biológicas. A otimização dos parâmetros em voltametria de pulso diferencial (DPV) foi realizada para a determinação dos antibióticos tetraciclina (TC), oxitetraciclina (OTC) e clortetraciclina (CTC) em tampão fosfato 0,10 mol L-1 pH 2,3, permitindo atingir limites de detecção de 2,6 µmol L-1, 1,7 µmol L-1 e 0,82 µmol L-1, respectivamente, sem a necessidade de renovação da superfície, entre as medidas sucessivas. Durante as determinações de TC e OTC em amostras de água natural e purificada, foram observadas recuperações entre 92,6% e 100%, após etapa de pré-concentração. As amostras de urina foram acidificadas, em seguida centrifugadas para a remoção de partículas sólidas e proteínas. A TC e OTC foram determinadas diretamente, na amostra de urina tratada e diluída em tampão fosfato 0,10 mol L-1 pH 2,3. Durante a determinação de TC e OTC nas amostras de urina, após o preparo da amostra, foram obtidas recuperações entre 96% e 100%. As amostras de leite bovino e humano foram intencionalmente contaminadas com TC. Após preparo das amostras, estas foram submetidas à extração, usando cartucho para extração em fase sólida (SPE). Após eluição e retomada do analito retido no cartucho, a quantidade de TC presente nas amostras foi determinada pelo método de adição de padrão, usando DPV, com EGPU 60% (grafite, m/m). Foram obtidas recuperações entre 76% e 103% para as amostras de leite bovino e recuperações entre 91% e 100 % para as amostras de leite humano, que mostram que o eletrodo proposto pode ser usado neste tipo de determinação com as características postuladas acima. / A bare graphite-polyurethane composite electrode 60% (graphite, m/m) (GPUE) was evaluated in the determination of tetracycline (TC) class antibiotics in natural water as well as, in human and bovine urine and in milk samples. Thus, a DPV procedure was optimized for the determination of tetracycline, oxytetracycline (OTC) and chlortetracycline (CTC) antibiotics in phosphate buffer 0.10 mol L-1 pH 2.3, resulting in LOD of 2.6 µmol L-1, 1.7 µmol L-1 and 0.82 µmol L-1, respectively. During the determination of TC and OTC in the water samples, recoveries between 92.6 and 100% were found, after pre-concentration stage. The urine samples were submitted to acidification followed by centrifugation to remove solids and proteins. During the determination of TC and OTC in urine samples, after pre-treatment of urine, recoveries between 96 and 100% were found. The composite electrode was also evaluated in the determination of TC in the bovine and human milk samples. During the determination of TC in milk, recoveries between 76 and 103% were found for bovine milk and recoveries between 91 and 100% were found for human milk after pre-concentration stage, showing the feasibility of the procedure.

In this study, we have developed a dense La0.85Sr0.15MnO3-δ (LSM) Ce0.9Gd0.1O1.95 (GDC) composite electrode system for studying the surface modification of cathodes. The LSM and GDC grains in the composite were well defined and distinguished using energy dispersive x-ray (EDX) analysis. The specific three-phase boundary (TPB) length per unit electrode surface area was systematically controlled by adjusting the LSM to GDC volume ratio of the composite from 40% up to 70%. The TPB length for each tested sample was determined through stereological techniques and used to correlate the cell performance and degradation with the specific TPB length per unit surface area. An overlapping spheres percolation model was developed to estimate the activity of the TPB lines on the surface of the dense composite electrodes developed. The model suggested that the majority of the TPB lines would be active and the length of those lines maximized if the volume percent of the electrolyte material was kept in the range of 47 57%. Additionally, other insights into the processing conditions to maximize the amount of active TPB length were garnered from both the stereology calculations and the percolation simulations. Steady-state current voltage measurements as well as electrochemical impedance measurements on numerous samples under various environmental conditions were completed. The apparent activation energy for the reduction reaction was found to lie somewhere between 31 kJ/mol and 41 kJ/mol depending upon the experimental conditions. The exchange current density was found to vary with the partial pressure of oxygen differently over two separate regions. At relatively low partial pressures, i0 had an approximately dependence and at relatively high partial pressures, i0 had an approximately dependence. This led to the conclusion that a change in the rate limiting step occurs over this range. A method for deriving the electrochemical properties from proposed reaction mechanisms was also presented. State-space modeling was used as it is a robust approach to addressing these particular types of problems due to its relative ease of implementation and ability to efficiently handle large systems of differential algebraic equations. This method combined theoretical development with experimental results obtained previously to predict the electrochemical performance data. The simulations agreed well the experimental data and allowed for testing of operating conditions not easily reproducible in the lab (e.g. precise control and differentiation of low oxygen partial pressures).