A produção de resíduos orgânicos tem aumentado em anos recentes e uma alternativa para o seu aproveitamento é o processo de compostagem, no qual se desenvolvem reações bioquímicas para estabilização do material que estão diretamente associadas com a humificação da matéria orgânica. Considerando a complexidade das transformações no processo de humificação e a importância de se conhecer com maior precisão estas reações e as características dos materiais gerados, foi proposto neste trabalho um estudo detalhado do processo de compostagem. A combinação de métodos convencionais e técnicas espectroscópicas permitiu o monitoramento contínuo da compostagem, de diferentes resíduos orgânicos. Para execução dos experimentos foram montadas 6 leiras (L) de 3,6 m3 com os seguintes resíduos: poda de árvores, esterco bovino fresco, bagaço de laranja, torta de filtro e solução de ácido pirolenhoso (como possível catalisador do processo). O monitorado foi realizado por 7 meses com medidas diárias de temperatura, controle semanal do teor de umidade e coletas mensais das amostras para extração de ácidos húmicos e análises químicas. Foram observadas as fases típicas da temperatura em todas as leiras, exceto na L1 (constituída apenas de poda de árvores). Na fase termofílica a temperatura atingiu os 60 o C e esta fase permaneceu por, aproximadamente, 90 dias. Este também foi o tempo necessário para a estabilização da relação da capacidade de troca catiônica pelo teor de carbono do composto (CTC/C), que alcançou valores acima de 2,2 mmolc g-1 . As análises de macro e micronutrientes evidenciaram o potencial fertilizante dos compostos produzidos, cujos valores, para alguns elementos, estão acima dos limites exigidos pela Instrução Normativa no 23 do Ministério de Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento. Já nas análises espectroscópicas foram encontrados índices de estabilização a partir dos espectros de fluorescência de luz UV - Vis. Estes apresentaram boa correlação com a razão C/N e os radicais livres orgânicos do tipo semiquinona, detectados por Ressonância Paramagnética Eletrônica. As correlações dos índices com a razão C/N mostraram que este último parâmetro tem limitação para monitorar a compostagem, pois a partir de 60 dias a relação C/N estabiliza, ainda na fase termofílica do processo, enquanto que os índices espectroscópicos continuam variando, indicando que o processo não se estabilizou completamente. Dentre as informações obtidas por fluorescência, foi possível identificar reações de transformação de moléculas orgânicas mais simples para estruturas mais complexas, detectadas através da diminuição de intensidade das bandas de emissão em comprimentos de onda menores (em torno de 300 nm) com simultâneo aumento da intensidade em regiões de maiores comprimentos de onda (próximos de 400 nm). Este comportamento também foi observado nos espectros de absorção UV - Vis. A partir dos dados de Ressonância Magnética Nuclear (RMN de 13 C) foi possível evidenciar a decomposição de estruturas como carboidratos, polissacarídeos e grupos alquil, assim como um aumento das estruturas aromáticas, durante o processo de humificação. Assim através da combinação das análises por métodos convencionais e espectroscópicos foram propostos indicadores analíticos mais sensíveis para o monitoramento e a caracterização da compostagem de resíduos orgânicos. / The production of organic residues has increased in recent years and an alternative to their recycling is the composting process, where various biochemical reactions are developed for the material stabilization. These reactions are directly associated with organic matter humification. Considering the complexity of the transformations occurred during the humification process and the importance of knowing these reactions and the characteristics of the produced materials more precisely, this work has proposed a detailed study of the composting process. The combination of conventional methods and spectroscopic techniques allowed the continuous composting assessment and monitoring from different organic residues. Six piles (P) of 3.6 m3 were assembled using the following residues: garden trimming, fresh cattle manure, orange pomace, filter cake and pyroligneous acid solution (used as possible catalyst of the process). The process was monitored for 7 months with daily measurements of temperature, weekly moisture control and monthly collection of samples for humic acid (HA) extraction and chemical analyses. Typical phases of temperature in all piles were observed, except for P1 (composed only garden trimming). In the thermophilic phase the temperature reached 60 o C and this phase remained for about 90 days. This was also the time necessary for stabilization of cation exchange capacity and total carbon ratio (CEC/C), which reached values above of 2.2 mmolc g-1 . The macro- and micronutrient analyses showed the fertilizer potential of the produced composts. Concentration values for same elements are above those required by Normative Instruction number 23 of the Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and Food Supply. As a result of the spectroscopic analyses, stabilization indices were obtained from fluorescence spectra of UV-Visible light. These indices showed good correlation with C/N ratio and with the semiquinone-type free radical, detected by Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR). The correlation of the indices with C/N ratio showed that the latter parameter has limitation to monitor the composting, because after 60 days the C/N ratio stabilizes and this occurs during the thermophilic phase, while the spectroscopic indices continue to change, which is an indicative that the process was not completely stabilized. Among several observations by fluorescence of UV-Visible light it was possible to identify transformation reactions of simpler organic molecules to more complex structures, which were detected by decrease in emission band intensity in shorter wavelengths (near 300 nm) with simultaneous increase in band intensity in longer wavelengths (near 400 nm). This behavior was also observed in the UV - Visible absorption spectra. It was possible to show the decomposition of carbohydrate type structures, polysaccharides and alkyl groups and the increase in aromatic structures, by 13 C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (13C NMR), during humification process of the organic residues. Therefore, more sensible analytic indicators were proposed for monitoring and characterization of the composting of organic residues through the combination of conventional and spectroscopic methods.

O destino e a utilização da imensa quantidade de resíduo sólido produzida nas cidades devem ser regulados por critérios rigorosamente científicos, desta forma, a aplicação no solo do composto produzido a partir deste material deve vir precedida de pesquisas que demonstrem a viabilidade ou não do seu uso. Neste trabalho utilizou-se o composto no cultivo da cenoura e analisou-se alguns parâmetros do composto, do solo e das cenouras, quantitativa e qualitativamente, para obter subsídios suficientes para o uso responsável e adequado deste tipo de resíduo na agricultura. Desta forma, com os resultados obtidos através das avaliações dos teores totais e disponíveis de metais (Zn, Pb, Ni, Cu, Cd e Cr) nas amostras de solo e nas raízes das cenouras, pode-se verificar a viabilidade da aplicação do composto para o cultivo da cenoura, considerando que não houve indícios de que o teor de qualquer metal nas raízes tenha sido suficientemente alto para trazer qualquer dano a saúde de quem as consome, entretanto o aumento da mortalidade das mudas relacionou-se diretamente com a taxa de aplicação do composto evidenciando um aspecto negativo da sua aplicação. / The destination and the use of the immense amount of municipal solid wastes should be strictly regulated by scientific approaches. Taking that into consideration, the application in the soil of the compost produced from this residue should be preceeded of studies to prove its viability. In this work, the compost was used in the cultivation of carrot. Some parameters of the compost, soil and carrots were analysed quantitatively and qualitatively to obtain subsidies for the responsible and appropriate use of this material in the agriculture. The viability of compost application was verified, when cultivating carrots, by evaluating the total amount of available metais (Zn, Pb, Ni, Cu, Cd and Cr) in the soil compost and carrot roots, because there were no indications of sufficiently high traces of metals in the roots to cause any harm to human health. However, the increase of the plants\' mortality was directly related with the compost application rate, thus evidencing a negative aspect of its use.

Orientador: Liliane Lazzari Albertin / Resumo: A degradação da qualidade da água é principalmente resultado de contaminantes de fontes difusas e da variabilidade espaço-temporal associada a essas fontes, além da falta de sistemas de coleta e tratamento de esgoto. Esse problema, de poluição pontual, pode ser amenizado em estações de tratamento de esgoto, pela implementação de tecnologias novas e eficientes, ou modificação do convencional em direção ao conceito de sustentabilidade. Neste contexto, o uso de macrófitas é uma alternativa de tecnologia de complexidade baixa, eficiente e econômica. As macrófitas têm uma alta taxa de reprodução e alta produção de biomassa, resultando em uma grande capacidade de remover compostos contaminantes dos esgotos. Além disso, as plantas aquáticas cultivadas em esgoto isento de metais pesados também podem ser utilizadas como fertilizantes na agricultura. Desta forma, o objetivo desta pesquisa foi avaliar o uso potencial da biomassa da macrófita, Landoltia punctata, como material nitrogenado associado a resíduos de podas de árvores, e outros materiais carbonáceos, em compostagem para produção de composto orgânico, bem como avaliar a composição físico-química do composto. O uso da Landoltia punctata em tratamento de polimento de efluentes apresenta a melhora da qualidade da água dos corpos de crescimento d'água e contribui para minimizar o problema da eutrofização no meio aquático. Porém sua alta taxa de crescimento e produção dificulta sua aplicação em larga escala, levantando questões para... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The degradation of water quality is mainly a result of contaminants from diffuse sources and the spatiotemporal variability associated to these sources, as well as the lack of sewage collection and treatment systems. This problem of punctual pollution can be mitigated in sewage treatment plants, through the implementation of new and efficient technologies, or modification of the conventional towards the concept of sustainability. In this context, the use of macrophytes is a technology alternative of low complexity, efficient and economical. Macrophytes have a high reproductive rate and high biomass production, resulting in a large capacity to remove contaminating compounds from sewage. In addition, aquatic plants grown in sewage free of heavy metals can also be used as fertilizers in agriculture. Thus, the objective of this research was to evaluate the potential use of macrophyte biomass, Landoltia punctata, as nitrogenous material associated with tree pruning residues and other carbonaceous materials, in composting for organic compost production, as well as to evaluate the physical composition. -chemical of the compound. The use of Landoltia punctata in effluent polishing treatment improves the water quality of water bodies and contributes to minimize the problem of eutrophication in the aquatic environment. However, its high rate of growth and production hampers its application on a large scale, raising questions for its safe disposal, since its biomass is characterized as ... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre

At the end of the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) period in 2015, 2.3 billion people, 31% of the global population, still did not have access to even basic sanitation services. Of these people, 892 million still practice open defecation, and 856 million people use unimproved facilities such as pit latrines without a slab or platform or hanging latrines or bucket latrines (JMP 2017). Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Target 6.2 now aims to achieve adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and sets the ambitious target of eradicating open defecation by 2030. While the number of people open defecating was reduced from 1229 million to 892 million between 2000 and 2015, that pace must accelerate to be achieved (JMP, 2017). In Panama, it is estimated that countrywide sanitation coverage is 71%, and rural coverage 54% (WHO/UNICEF, 2013). Even so, in indigenous areas like the Comarca Ngäbe-Buglé, only 25% of the population has adequate access to basic sanitation (ANAM, 2006). This research builds upon the research presented in (Hurtado, 2005, Kaiser, 2006, Mehl, 2008, and Wilbur, 2014). These theses researched double vault urine diverting (DVUD) latrines, or composting latrines, in indigenous communities in the province of Bocas del Toro and the Comarca Ngäbe-Buglé in Panama. Hurtado, Kaiser, and Mehl researched the design, construction, and pathogen destruction capabilities of composting latrines. Wilbur studied how human attitudes and perceptions serve as incentives or barriers to composting latrine use. In this research surveys, interviews, and observations were recorded in 6 indigenous Ngäbe communities in Bocas del Toro and the Comarca Ngäbe-Buglé. The study quantifies usage of ventilated improved pit (VIP) and basic pit latrines in these communities, assesses positive and negative perceptions of composting latrines, and determines perceptions of feces and the reuse of composted human excrement. The results reveal that of n=103 latrines 88.3% were completed and in use, but only 35.2% were properly covered. To promote proper usage of latrines, continued education and trainings need to be carried out in these communities. Respondents were also favorable to the use of composting latrines, with 61.2% of respondents saying they would be interested in building a composting latrine for their households. The main perceived benefit of composting latrines is the compost, and the most identified barrier to use was lack of prior experience. Other main barriers included user disgust and the amount of work it takes to own and operate the latrine. There were more identified incentives (12) than barriers (11) to composting latrine adoption. Respondents also reported they would react more favorably to their neighbor implementing the technology and using compost than their neighbor would react should the respondent do the same thing. These results indicate the importance of pilot projects in communities, allowing people to see the benefits of the technology and how it works before implementing a larger scale project. These projects would also reduce the stigma associated with being a first adopter. Statistical analysis revealed that the demographics of community, sanitation classification, gender, and primary occupation were significantly linked to survey statements used to measure perceptions on composting latrine use and the use of composted human excrement as a fertilizer. Age, gender, and household size were not found to have a statistically significant link to user perceptions on the same survey statements. Logistic regression analysis was then performed using SPSS statistical analysis software (version 24). The results of this research indicate the importance of setting up follow up trainings as many respondents had forgotten how to properly maintain their latrines. It also suggests the setup of pilot projects for composting latrines, as many respondents were favorable to the technology but did not want to try to own and operate a composting latrine without seeing a successful composting latrine first.

The disposal of sewage sludge is becoming an ever-increasing problem and a range of re-use options are being developed, with traditional composting and advanced alkaline stabilisation emerging as priority re-use alternatives in NSW. However, concerns have been raised regarding the dissemination of sludge related pathogens in the environment. Salmonella spp pose the greatest risk since they have the ability to proliferate in the absence of human and animal hosts. Composting processes eliminate salmonellae from sludge, but the opportunity for post-processing recontamination is considerable. This project examined the significance of post-processing recontamination of Salmonella broughton, introduced into composted sludge and N-Virosoil. In compost, inactivation rates of S. broughton showed an inverse relationship with simulated processing temperatures, with competitive exclusion by autocthonous compost flora thought to be the major mechanism of inhibition. S. broughton numbers were reduced to below the limits of detection after several weeks. S. broughton inactivation was also assessed in processed N-Virosoil and was found to be more immediate. It was concluded that both compost and N.Virosoil products have a low potential to support the regrowth of Salmonella spp. / Master of Science (Hons)(Environmental Science)

<p>Eutrophication of the Baltic Sea and Swedish lakes remains a major problem despite many years of effort to reduce the emissions of nutrients. One major source is waste water systems, especially private sewage systems. These sewages accounts for a very large share of nutrients per capita in comparison with citizens connected to larger sewage treatment plants. Norrtälje community has the greatest number of private sewage systems in Sweden. Discharges of nutrients, especially phosphorus, to the Baltic Sea from these sewage systems are significant. That is why Norrtälje is working actively to improve the standard of these sewage systems.</p><p>The purpose with this Master Thesis was to compare from an environmental and cost perspective, different sewage systems in an area of Norrtälje. One of these sewage systems was liquid composting. To make this easier a tool called VeVa, which is an instrument for assessment of water and sewage systems in transition areas, was used. Since liquid composting was not included in VeVa in the beginning of the study one purpose was also to implement this option in the tool. Another objective of the work was to evaluate whether liquid composting is still a good sewage options in the future. The result of this study is based on a literature review, contact with Norrtälje community and modeling in VeVa.</p><p>The four sewage systems that where included in the study where connection to a large scale waste water treatment plant, local sewage treatment plant and liquid composting. The fourth system was a new construction of the already existing private sewage system in the area. This system was a sand filter system with a phosphorus trap and a separation and collection of toilet water.</p><p>Results from the study showed that all systems, with some exceptions for local wastewater treatment plant, can meet the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency high demand of phosphorus and nitrogen reduction for small sewage systems. All systems in the study, except for sand filter with phosphorus traps, have a high reversal potential of phosphorus. However it is only the liquid compost that can recycle nitrogen back to arable land to a greater extent. A comparison between manure sludge from waste water treatment plants and liquid composts showed that the liquid composts had a much lower level of cadmium content and higher proportion of plant available nutrients. The energy use for these systems varied widely where connection to a large scale wastewater treatment plant have the highest, while the liquid compost have the lowest energy use. The cost analysis showed that a municipal sewage treatment plant is the most expensive and liquid composting system is the next most expensive system. However, the differences in cost between the studied systems are not particularly large when uncertainties in the input are accounted. The conclusions of this Master Thesis were that liquid composting is a good sewage solution, especially when recycling of nutrients is an important factor. However there are important social and economic considerations that must be taken into account when deciding which sewage system should be implemented.</p> / <p>Övergödning av Östersjön och andra svenska vattendrag är ett stort miljöproblem som uppkommer av antropogena utsläpp av näringsämnen. En betydande källa för dessa utsläpp härrör från avloppsrening, i synnerhet från enskilda avlopp. Enskilda avlopp utgör en oproportionerligt stor källa av främst fosforutsläpp jämfört med större reningsverk räknat per capita. Norrtälje kommun är den kommun i Sverige som har flest enskilda avlopp och detta gör att utsläppen av näringsämnen till Östersjön är betydande. Den dåliga ekologiska statusen i stora delar av kommunens vattenområden har inverkat till att kommunen arbetar aktivt med att förbättra avloppsstandarden i dessa problemområden. År 2005 byggdes en våtkompostanläggning i Norrtälje vars syfte var att producera gödsel av avloppsvatten för att på så sätt ta vara på avloppsvattnets näringsinnehåll. Denna anläggning har lett till ett ökat intresset för system som har stor återföringspotential av växtnäringsämnen och funderingar på ytterligare en våtkompostanläggning i kommunen diskuteras i dagsläget.</p><p>Syftet med detta examensarbete var att studera fyra olika avloppsalternativ, där våtkompostering var ett alternativ, för ett fallstudieområde i Norrtälje. Som hjälpmedel för att utföra miljö- och kostnadsanalyser användes VeVa-verktyget som är ett verktyg för miljö- och kostnadsbedömningar för VA-system i omvandlingsområden. Eftersom våtkompostering inte ingick i VeVa vid detta examensarbetes början var också ett syfte att implementera detta avloppssystem i verktyget. Ett annat syfte var att göra en bedömning om våtkompostering är ett bra avloppssystem även i framtiden. Resultaten i denna studie bygger på en litteraturstudie, myndighetskontakt och modellering i VeVa. De avloppssystem som jämfördes i studien var anslutning till kommunalt avloppsreningsverk (ARV), lokalt avloppsreningsverk, våtkompostering och nyanläggning av samma enskilda system som i dagsläget finns i fallstudieområdet. Det sistnämnda systemet är en kombination av markbädd med fosforfälla samt sluten tank och markbädd.</p><p>Resultatet från studien visar att alla systemen med viss reservation för lokalt avloppsreningsverk uppfyller Naturvårdsverkets höga skyddsnivå för fosfor och kväve vilket är 90 % respektive 50 %. Alla system har en hög återföringspotential av fosfor men det är endast våtkompostsystemet som kan återföra kväve i större omfattning. Jämförelsen mellan slam från avloppsreningsverk och våtkomposterat avloppsavfall visade att våtkompost har mycket lägre kadmiumhalt samt högre andel växttillgänglig näring. Energianvändningen varierar mycket mellan systemen där anslutning till kommunalt avloppsreningsverk har högst förbrukning, medan våtkompostsystemet har lägst. Kostnadsanalysen visar att anslutning till kommunalt avloppsreningsverk är dyrast och våtkompostsystemet hamnar på andra plats. Dock är skillnaden mellan de studerade systemen inte speciellt stor när osäkerheter i indata beaktats. Slutsatsen i detta arbete är att våtkompostering är en bra avloppslösning, speciellt när kretsloppsanpassning är en viktig del, dock finns det viktiga sociala och ekonomiska aspekter som måste vägas in vid beslut om avloppssystem.</p>

The main project Dry preservation of food waste from households includes a new technique concerning drying and storage of dried biowaste as well as a study of the sorting of household waste and further usage of the dried biowaste. A question asked in the project is, can the dried biowaste be used as a soil amendment? If organic waste is used as a soil amendment, precaution concerning hygienic safety risks has to be accounted for. The objective of this M. Sc. Thesis Work was to first find a suitable method to attain hygienic safety through a literature study, to test and evaluate the method and to test if a method changes the composition or structure of the material. An existing recipe for food waste was developed and used throughout the work. Heating of the dried biowaste is probably the most suitable method to reach and attain a hygienically safe product. Three time-temperature proportions were tested, 55, 70 and 80°C. The results show that a raise in temperature lead to a change in the composition of the dried biowaste, most distinctively for the highest temperature. Nitrogen losses of 21% of the total nitrogen content were noticed. A composting experiment showed that the biowaste heated to the highest temperature was decomposed to a higher degree. It does not, however, seem like a heating process will decrease the possibility to use dried biowaste as a soil improvement. / Projektet Torrkonservering av matavfall från hushåll innefattar en ny teknik för torkning och lagring av bioavfall, hushållens sortering och vidare användning av det torkade materialet. För att sluta det naturliga kretsloppet utreds om det torkade bioavfallet kan användas som ett jordförbättringsmedel. När organiskt avfall ska användas som ett jordförbättringsmedel ställs krav på hygienisk säkerhet. Examensarbetets syfte var att, genom litteraturstudier, utreda lämplig hygieniseringsmetod att vidare testa praktiskt, samt att testa om en hygieniseringsprocess medför några förändringar på det torkade bioavfallets materialegenskaper. Ett befintligt standardrecept på matavfall vidareutvecklades och användes. Resultaten tyder på att upphettning av det torkade bioavfallet förmodligen är den mest lämpliga hygieniseringsmetoden. Tre olika tid- temperaturförhållanden testades, 55, 70 och 80°C. Laborationer och analyser tyder på att det torkade bioavfallet genomgår en viss förändring av den kemiska sammansättningen vid upphettning, vilket är tydligast för den högsta hygieniseringstemperaturen. Bland annat sker kväveförluster på upp till 21 % av totalkvävet. Komposteringstester visar på att nedbrytningsgraden är högst för bioavfall som hygieniserats vid den högsta temperaturen. Det verkar inte som om hygienisering, genom upphettning, minskar möjligheten att använda torkat bioavfall som ett jordförbättringsmedel.

Eutrophication of the Baltic Sea and Swedish lakes remains a major problem despite many years of effort to reduce the emissions of nutrients. One major source is waste water systems, especially private sewage systems. These sewages accounts for a very large share of nutrients per capita in comparison with citizens connected to larger sewage treatment plants. Norrtälje community has the greatest number of private sewage systems in Sweden. Discharges of nutrients, especially phosphorus, to the Baltic Sea from these sewage systems are significant. That is why Norrtälje is working actively to improve the standard of these sewage systems. The purpose with this Master Thesis was to compare from an environmental and cost perspective, different sewage systems in an area of Norrtälje. One of these sewage systems was liquid composting. To make this easier a tool called VeVa, which is an instrument for assessment of water and sewage systems in transition areas, was used. Since liquid composting was not included in VeVa in the beginning of the study one purpose was also to implement this option in the tool. Another objective of the work was to evaluate whether liquid composting is still a good sewage options in the future. The result of this study is based on a literature review, contact with Norrtälje community and modeling in VeVa. The four sewage systems that where included in the study where connection to a large scale waste water treatment plant, local sewage treatment plant and liquid composting. The fourth system was a new construction of the already existing private sewage system in the area. This system was a sand filter system with a phosphorus trap and a separation and collection of toilet water. Results from the study showed that all systems, with some exceptions for local wastewater treatment plant, can meet the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency high demand of phosphorus and nitrogen reduction for small sewage systems. All systems in the study, except for sand filter with phosphorus traps, have a high reversal potential of phosphorus. However it is only the liquid compost that can recycle nitrogen back to arable land to a greater extent. A comparison between manure sludge from waste water treatment plants and liquid composts showed that the liquid composts had a much lower level of cadmium content and higher proportion of plant available nutrients. The energy use for these systems varied widely where connection to a large scale wastewater treatment plant have the highest, while the liquid compost have the lowest energy use. The cost analysis showed that a municipal sewage treatment plant is the most expensive and liquid composting system is the next most expensive system. However, the differences in cost between the studied systems are not particularly large when uncertainties in the input are accounted. The conclusions of this Master Thesis were that liquid composting is a good sewage solution, especially when recycling of nutrients is an important factor. However there are important social and economic considerations that must be taken into account when deciding which sewage system should be implemented. / Övergödning av Östersjön och andra svenska vattendrag är ett stort miljöproblem som uppkommer av antropogena utsläpp av näringsämnen. En betydande källa för dessa utsläpp härrör från avloppsrening, i synnerhet från enskilda avlopp. Enskilda avlopp utgör en oproportionerligt stor källa av främst fosforutsläpp jämfört med större reningsverk räknat per capita. Norrtälje kommun är den kommun i Sverige som har flest enskilda avlopp och detta gör att utsläppen av näringsämnen till Östersjön är betydande. Den dåliga ekologiska statusen i stora delar av kommunens vattenområden har inverkat till att kommunen arbetar aktivt med att förbättra avloppsstandarden i dessa problemområden. År 2005 byggdes en våtkompostanläggning i Norrtälje vars syfte var att producera gödsel av avloppsvatten för att på så sätt ta vara på avloppsvattnets näringsinnehåll. Denna anläggning har lett till ett ökat intresset för system som har stor återföringspotential av växtnäringsämnen och funderingar på ytterligare en våtkompostanläggning i kommunen diskuteras i dagsläget. Syftet med detta examensarbete var att studera fyra olika avloppsalternativ, där våtkompostering var ett alternativ, för ett fallstudieområde i Norrtälje. Som hjälpmedel för att utföra miljö- och kostnadsanalyser användes VeVa-verktyget som är ett verktyg för miljö- och kostnadsbedömningar för VA-system i omvandlingsområden. Eftersom våtkompostering inte ingick i VeVa vid detta examensarbetes början var också ett syfte att implementera detta avloppssystem i verktyget. Ett annat syfte var att göra en bedömning om våtkompostering är ett bra avloppssystem även i framtiden. Resultaten i denna studie bygger på en litteraturstudie, myndighetskontakt och modellering i VeVa. De avloppssystem som jämfördes i studien var anslutning till kommunalt avloppsreningsverk (ARV), lokalt avloppsreningsverk, våtkompostering och nyanläggning av samma enskilda system som i dagsläget finns i fallstudieområdet. Det sistnämnda systemet är en kombination av markbädd med fosforfälla samt sluten tank och markbädd. Resultatet från studien visar att alla systemen med viss reservation för lokalt avloppsreningsverk uppfyller Naturvårdsverkets höga skyddsnivå för fosfor och kväve vilket är 90 % respektive 50 %. Alla system har en hög återföringspotential av fosfor men det är endast våtkompostsystemet som kan återföra kväve i större omfattning. Jämförelsen mellan slam från avloppsreningsverk och våtkomposterat avloppsavfall visade att våtkompost har mycket lägre kadmiumhalt samt högre andel växttillgänglig näring. Energianvändningen varierar mycket mellan systemen där anslutning till kommunalt avloppsreningsverk har högst förbrukning, medan våtkompostsystemet har lägst. Kostnadsanalysen visar att anslutning till kommunalt avloppsreningsverk är dyrast och våtkompostsystemet hamnar på andra plats. Dock är skillnaden mellan de studerade systemen inte speciellt stor när osäkerheter i indata beaktats. Slutsatsen i detta arbete är att våtkompostering är en bra avloppslösning, speciellt när kretsloppsanpassning är en viktig del, dock finns det viktiga sociala och ekonomiska aspekter som måste vägas in vid beslut om avloppssystem.

Hemkompostering är fördelaktigt bland annat därför att det kan leda till minskade transporter av sopor och därmed koldioxidutsläpp, samt att den färdiga komposten kan användas som näringstillskott för växter. Kompostering av matavfall innebär dock en risk för bildning av metan och lustgas, vilka är starka växthusgaser. Även ammoniak, med försurande och övergödande effekter, kan släppas ut från komposten under vissa förhållanden. Det här arbetet syftar till att undersöka utsläppen av dessa ämnen, samt öka kunskapen om hur skötseln av komposten påverkar utsläppen.   Vid tre tillfällen under juni och juli 2010 utfördes mätningar på 20 komposter i Uppsala.  Temperaturen mättes i komposten, prov togs av gasen i kompostoch prover av materialet togs även för analys av vattenhalt, pH och askhalt. Hushållen förde också protokoll över sin skötsel av komposten under tiden för mätningarna. Utöver detta genomfördes en enkätstudie i vilken ett större antal komposter inkluderades, i avsikt att ge en bredare bild av hur hemkomposter i allmänhet sköts.   Gasproven analyserades i gaskromotograf, och de beräknade koncentrationerna relaterades till uppmätta temperaturer, vattenhalter, pH-värden och askhalter samt de ifyllda protokollen.   Enkätstudien visade att hemkomposter används och sköts om på mycket varierande sätt. Resultaten visade vidare att utsläppen av metan och lustgas (angivna som kvoterna CH4:CO2 respektive N2O:CO2) överlag var låga jämfört med uppmätta utsläpp i andra studier, med högre värden på omkring 2,5% endast för ett fåtal komposter. Effekterna av utsläppen av N2O beräknades till cirka 12 gånger större än de orsakade av utsläppen av CH4. Ett antydan till samband kunde ses mellan uppmätt NH3-halt och tillsatser av kväverikt kött-/fiskavfall. I övrigt kunde inga andra distinkta samband mellan skötsel och utsläpp observeras, något som skulle kunna bero på dels att endast tre mätomgångar ingår i studien och dels på att datan inhämtad från protokollen varierade i kvalitet och innehöll stora osäkerheter. / Home composting is beneficial as it can help reduce transports of household waste, and also because the mature compost can be used as a soil amendment for plants. On the other hand, composting of food waste enables formation of the potent greenhouse gases methane and nitrous oxide. It is also possible that ammonia be formed, which can have acidifying and eutrophicating effects on the environment. The aim of this study was to examine the emissions of these compounds, and if possible to gain knowledge on how the management of the compost affects these emissions.   Measurements were carried out on 20 home composts within Uppsala on three occasions during June and July in 2010. The compost temperature was measured, gas samples were taken and also samples of the material for analysis of moisture and ash content as well as pH. The households were also asked to fill in a protocol with all the compost activities performed during the period of the measurements. In addition to this, a questionnaire study was conducted in order to give an overview of how home composts in general are fed and managed.   The gas samples were analyzed in a gas chromatograph, and the obtained concentrations were then put in relation to the measured temperatures, pH, and moisture and ash contents as well as the data from the protocols.   The questionnaire study showed that home composts are used and managed in very different ways. Moreover, the results showed that the emissions of methane and nitrous oxide (given as CH4:CO2 and N2O:CO2 ratios) in general were small compared to those from other studies, with only a couple of composts with higher ratios than around 2.5%. The effects on the environment from the measured emissions of N2O were calculated to 12 times greater than those given by the emissions of CH4. Regarding ammonia, a clear connection was observed between the few elevated concentrations and additons of meaty waste rich of nitrogen. As for the greenhouse gases, no distinct correlations could be seen between how the composts were managed and the CH4:CO2 and N2O:CO2 ratios. This might be explained by the fact that only three sampling rounds were conducted, but also that the protocol information contained uncertainties and varied in quality.

Reports from various institutions claim that garbage management in Rwanda has had diverse effects on both the natural environment and human society. Such claims prompted for an exploratory study to find out an optimal system to handle solid waste in Kigali City. The study considered a literature review and primary data from 400 randomly selected citizens. They were surveyed about their opinions on which system they perceived to be the optimal to handle garbage in Kigali City. The computer software Web-Hipre was used to analyze data on the three systems considered to handle solid waste in Rwanda: briquetting, composting, and incineration.The results indicate briquetting as the optimal alternative to handle solid waste from homesteads and workplaces of Kigali City. Briquetting considers production of solid fuels that may reduce destruction of forests for fuel. Other major reasons for briquetting, highlighted by respondents, include improved kitchen hygiene and sanitation and replacement of charcoal for a less dusty fuel. Economic factors governed surveyed participants to prioritise briquetting system to handle solid waste in Kigali. Composting may be considered for transforming organic materials into mulch to support farming activities in rural areas as well as gardening in the towns. However, a centralised incineration system is presently not suitable. The private sector has so far not fully been engaged in the transformation of solid waste into bioenergy in Rwanda.