Three dimensional (3D) woven composites have attracted the interest of academia and industry thanks to their damage tolerance characteristics and automated fabric manufacturing. Although much research has been conducted to investigate their out-of-plane "through thickness" properties, still their in-plane properties are not fully understood and rely on extensive experimentation. The aim of this work is to study the electromechanical behaviour of three different fibre architectures of 3D woven composites "orthogonal (ORT), layer-to-layer (LTL) and angle interlock (AI)" loaded, in three different orientations "warp (0º), weft (90º) and off-axis (45º)", in quasi-static tension. Stress/strain response is captured as well as damage initiation and evolution up to final failure. The ORT architecture demonstrated a superior behaviour, in the off-axis direction, demonstrated by high strain to failure (~23%) and high translaminar energy absorption (~40 MJ/m3). The z-binder yarns in ORT suppress delamination and allow larger fibre rotation during the fibre "scissoring motion" that enables further strain to be sustained. In-situ electrical resistance variation is monitored using a four-probe technique to correlate the resistance variation with the level of damage induced while loading. Monotonic and cyclic "load/unload" tests are performed to investigate the effect of piezo-resistivity and residual plasticity on resistance variation while damage is captured by X-ray scanning during interrupted tests at predefined load levels. In addition, this study investigates the potential of using 3D woven composites in joint assemblies through open-hole tension and "single fastener double-lap joint" bearing strength tests. 3D woven composites in the off-axis orientation, especially ORT, demonstrate a potential for overcoming some of the major challenges for composite joints' applications which are the pseudo-ductility, stress redistribution away from the notch and notch insensitivity. Finally, the study proposes a micro-mechanics based damage model to simulate the response of 3D orthogonal woven composites loaded in tension. The proposed model differs from classical damage mechanics approaches in which the evolution law is obtained by retrofitting global experimental observations.

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has become an attractive tool in understanding the characteristic of air flow in the human lungs. Inter-subject variations make subject-specific simulations essential for understanding structure-function relationship, assessing lung function and improving drug delivery. However, currently the subject-specific CFD analysis remains challenging due, in large part to, two issues: construction of realistic deforming airway geometry and imposition of physiological boundary conditions. To address these two issues, we develop subject-specific, dynamic lung models by utilizing two or multiple volume multi-detector row computed tomography (MDCT) data sets and image registrations in this thesis. A mass-preserving nonrigid image registration algorithm is first proposed to match a pair of three-dimensional (3D) MDCT data sets with large deformations. A novel similarity criterion, the sum of squared tissue volume difference (SSTVD), is introduced to account for changes in intensity with lung inflation. We then demonstrate the ability to develop dynamic lung models by using a pair of lung volumes to account for deformations of airway geometries and subject-specific boundary conditions. The deformation of the airway geometry is derived by the registration-derived deformation field and subject-specific boundary condition is estimated from regional ventilation in a 3D and one-dimensional (1D) coupled multi-scale framework. Improved dynamic lung models are then proposed from three lung volumes by utilizing nonlinear interpolations. The improved lung models account for nonlinear geometry motions and time-varying boundary conditions during breathing. The capability of the proposed dynamic lung model is expected to move the CFD-based interrogation of lung function to the next plateau.

The understanding of multiphase flow properties is essential for the exploitation of hydrocarbon reserves in a reservoir; these properties in turn are dependent on the geometric properties and connectivity of the pore space. The determination of the pore size distribution in carbonate reservoirs remains challenging; carbonates exhibit complex pore structures comprising length scales from nanometers to several centimeters. A major challenge to the accurate evaluation of these reservoirs is accounting for pore scale heterogeneity on multiple scales. This is the topic of this thesis. Conventionally, this micron scale information is achieved either by building stochastic models using 2D images or by combining log and laboratory data to classify pore types and their behaviour. None of these capture the true 3D connectivity vital for flow characterisation. We present here an approach to build realistic 3D network models across a range of scales to improve property estimation through employment of X-ray micro-Computed Tomography (μCT) and Focussed Ion Beam Tomography (FIBT). The submicron, or microporous, regions are delineated through a differential imaging technique undertaken on x-ray CT providing a qualitative description of microporosity. Various 3-Phase segmentation methods are then applied for quantitative characterisation of those regions utilising the attenuation coefficient values from the 3D tomographic images. X-ray micro-CT is resolution limited and can not resolve the detailed geometrical features of the submicron pores. FIB tomography is used to image the 3D pore structure of submicron pores down to a scale of tens of nanometers. We describe the experimental development and subsequent image processing including issues and difficulties resolved at various stages. The developed methodology is implemented on cores from producing wackstone and grainstone reservoirs. Pore network models are generated to characterise the 3D interconnectivity of pores. We perform the simulations of petrophysical properties (permeability and formation resistivity) directly on the submicron scale image data. Simulated drainage capillary pressure curves are matched with the experimental data. We also present some preliminary results for the integration of multiscale pore information to build dual-scale network models. The integration of multiscale data allows one to select appropriate effective medium theories to incorporate sub-micron structure into property calculations at macro scale giving a more realistic estimation of properties.

The understanding of multiphase flow properties is essential for the exploitation of hydrocarbon reserves in a reservoir; these properties in turn are dependent on the geometric properties and connectivity of the pore space. The determination of the pore size distribution in carbonate reservoirs remains challenging; carbonates exhibit complex pore structures comprising length scales from nanometers to several centimeters. A major challenge to the accurate evaluation of these reservoirs is accounting for pore scale heterogeneity on multiple scales. This is the topic of this thesis. Conventionally, this micron scale information is achieved either by building stochastic models using 2D images or by combining log and laboratory data to classify pore types and their behaviour. None of these capture the true 3D connectivity vital for flow characterisation. We present here an approach to build realistic 3D network models across a range of scales to improve property estimation through employment of X-ray micro-Computed Tomography (μCT) and Focussed Ion Beam Tomography (FIBT). The submicron, or microporous, regions are delineated through a differential imaging technique undertaken on x-ray CT providing a qualitative description of microporosity. Various 3-Phase segmentation methods are then applied for quantitative characterisation of those regions utilising the attenuation coefficient values from the 3D tomographic images. X-ray micro-CT is resolution limited and can not resolve the detailed geometrical features of the submicron pores. FIB tomography is used to image the 3D pore structure of submicron pores down to a scale of tens of nanometers. We describe the experimental development and subsequent image processing including issues and difficulties resolved at various stages. The developed methodology is implemented on cores from producing wackstone and grainstone reservoirs. Pore network models are generated to characterise the 3D interconnectivity of pores. We perform the simulations of petrophysical properties (permeability and formation resistivity) directly on the submicron scale image data. Simulated drainage capillary pressure curves are matched with the experimental data. We also present some preliminary results for the integration of multiscale pore information to build dual-scale network models. The integration of multiscale data allows one to select appropriate effective medium theories to incorporate sub-micron structure into property calculations at macro scale giving a more realistic estimation of properties.

Electrical trees are micrometre-size tubular channels of degradation in high voltage polymeric insulation, a precursor to failure of electrical power plant. Hence, electrical trees critically affect the reliability of power systems and the performance of new insulation designs. Imaging laboratory-grown electrical trees has been an important tool for studying how trees develop. Commonly, electrical trees prepared in transparent or translucent polymers are imaged using traditional optical methods. Consequently, most of the analysis has been based on two-dimensional (2D) images of trees, thus, valuable information may be lost. However, electrical trees are complex interconnected structures that require a tree-dimensional (3D) approach for more complete analysis. This thesis investigates a method for imaging and analysis of electrical trees to characterise their 3D structure and provide a platform for further modelling. Laboratory created electrical trees were imaged using X-ray Computed Tomography (XCT) and Serial Block-Face Scanning Electron Microscopy (SBFSEM), 3D imaging techniques that provide sub-micrometre spatial resolution. Virtual replicas of the trees, which are the 3D geometrical models representing the real electrical trees, were generated and new indices to characterise the 3D structure of electrical trees were developed. These parameters were indicative of differences in tree growth and thus, they can be used to investigate patterns and classify the structure of electrical trees. The progression of the tree was analysed using cross-sections of the tree that are orthogonal to the growth: the number of tree channels and area covered by them were measured. The fractal dimension of the tree was calculated from the 3D model and from the 2D projections, the latter being lower for all the tree-type structures studied. Parameters from the skeleton of the tree such as number of nodes, segment length, tortuosity and branch angle were measured. Most of the mean segment lengths ranged 6-13 µm, which is in accordance to the 10µm proposed by various tree-growth models. The capabilities of XCT and SBFSEM imaging techniques were evaluated in their application to electrical trees. Bush and branch trees, including early-growth electrical trees (of length 20-40 µm), were analysed and compared using the comprehensive tool of visualisation and characterisation developed. A two-stage tree-growth experiment was conducted to analyse the progression and development of tree branches using XCT: tree channels after the second stage of growth were wider than after the first, while the fractal dimension remained the same. The capabilities of XCT and SBFSEM were tested for imaging electrical trees in optically-opaque materials such as micro and nano-filled epoxy compounds. The general structure of trees in epoxy filled up to 20 wt% micro-silica was observed using both techniques. The use of a virtual replica as the 3D geometrical model for the simulation of the electric field distribution using Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was preliminary explored. A combination of the imaging techniques is proposed for a more complete structural analysis of trees. It is believed that a great impact towards understanding electrical treeing will be achieved using the 3D technical platform developed in this thesis.

Brain lesions are regions of abnormal or damaged tissue in the brain, commonly due to stroke, cancer or other disease. They are diagnosed primarily using neuroimaging, the most common modalities being Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) or Computed Tomography (CT). Brain lesions have a high degree of variability in terms of location, size, intensity and form, which makes diagnosis challenging. Traditionally, radiologists diagnose lesions by inspecting neuroimages directly by eye; however, this is time-consuming and subjective. For these reasons, many automated methods have been developed for lesion delineation (segmentation), lesion identification and diagnosis. The goal of this thesis is to improve and develop automated methods for delineating brain lesions from multimodal MRI scans. First, we propose an improvement to existing segmentation methods by exploiting the bilateral quasi-symmetry of healthy brains, which breaks down when lesions are present. We augment our data using nonlinear registration of a neuroimage to a reflected version of itself, leading to an improvement in Dice coefficient of 13 percent. Second, we model lesion volume in brain image patches with a modified Poisson regression method. The model accurately identified the lesion image with the larger lesion volume for 86 percent of paired sample patches. Both of these projects were published in the proceedings of the BIOSTEC 2020 conference. In the last two chapters, we propose a confidence-based approach to measure segmentation uncertainty, and apply an unsupervised segmentation method based on mutual information.

Cone penetration in sands is a complex process: it contains several challenges that geomechanicians face, such as large displacements, large strains, strain localization, and microscale phenomena such as particle crushing and sand fabric evolution. In order to gain a deeper understanding of the penetration process and the mechanisms controlling penetration resistance, capturing these displacement and strain fields and microscale phenomena is necessary. Furthermore, as more sophisticated theoretical models become available for the simulation of the cone penetration problem, the experimental validation of those methods becomes vital.<br><div><br></div><div>This dissertation presents a multiscale study of the cone penetration process in silica sands. The penetration problem is investigated using a combinational approach consisting of calibration chamber experiments, digital image correlation (DIC) analysis, and X-ray computed Tomography (XCT) scans. Three silica sands with different particle characteristics are used in the experimental program. These three sands have similar particle size distributions; however, they differ in particle morphologies and particle strengths. These differences allow a study of the effect of microscale sand properties on the macroscale response of the sands to the cone penetration process. The three silica sands used in this research are fully characterized using laboratory experiments to obtain particle size distributions, particle morphologies, particle crushing strengths, minimum and maximum packing densities, and critical-state friction angles. Subsequently, both dense and medium-dense samples of the three sands are compressed in a uniaxial loading device placed inside an X-ray microscope (XRM) and scanned at multiple stress levels during uniaxial compression. Results from uniaxial compression experiments indicate that: (1) the compressibility of the sands is closely tied to particle morphology and strength, and (2) the anisotropy in the orientations of interparticle contact normals generally increases with axial stress; however, this increase is limited by the occurrence of particle crushing in the sample.<br></div><div><br></div><div>Subsequently, cone penetration experiments are performed under different confinement levels on dense samples of the three sands in aspecial half-cylindrical calibration chamber equipped with DIC capabilities. For each penetration experiment, incremental displacement fields around the cone penetrometer are obtained using DIC analysis, and these incremental displacement fields are further analyzed to compute the incremental strain fields. A novel methodology is developed to obtain the shear-band patterns that develop around the penetrometer automatically. Furthermore, differences in the shear-band patterns in deep and shallow penetration environments are also investigated. Results show that strain fields tend to localize intensely near the penetrometer tip, and the shear bands tend to develop along the inclined face and near the shoulder of the penetrometer. Significant differences in the shear band patterns in deep and shallow penetration environments are also observed.<br></div><div><br></div><div>After each cone penetration experiment, a specially developed agar-impregnation technique is used to collect minimally disturbedsand samples from around the penetrometertip. These agar-impregnated sand samples are scanned in the XRM to obtain 3D tomography data, which are further analyzed to quantify particle crushing around the penetrometer tip. The results show that: (1) for a given sample density, the amount of crushing around the cone penetrometer depends on the confinement and the sand particle characteristics, (2) the level of crushing is not uniform around the penetrometer tip, with more severe crushing observed near the shoulder of the penetrometer, and (3) the regions with more severe particle crushing around the penetrometer approximately overlap with regions of high shear strain and volumetric contraction. A framework is also proposed to obtain the ratio of penetration resistance in more crushable sands to penetration resistance in less crushable sands. Furthermore, a novel resin-impregnation technique is also developed to collect undisturbedsand samples from around the penetrometer tip. The resin-impregnated sand sample collected after one of the penetration experiments is scanned in the XRM to obtain the 3D tomography data, which is then analyzed to obtain the distribution of interparticle contact normal orientations at multiple locations around the penetrometer tip. These analyses indicate that the interparticle contact normals tend to orient themselves with the incremental principal strains around the penetrometer: below the penetrometer tip, the interparticle contact normals orient vertically upwards, while closer to the shoulder of the penetrometer, the interparticle contact normals become more radially inclined.<br></div><div><br></div><div>Data presented in this dissertation on penetration resistance, incremental displacement fields, incremental strain fields, particle crushing, and interparticle contact normal orientations around the cone penetrometer are aimed to be useful to researchers working on the multiscale modeling of penetration processes in granular materials and aid in the further development of our understanding of penetration processes in sands.<br></div>

Aim To review the recent evidence that has resulted from experiences in and out of conflict in relation to improving imaging in cases of major trauma. Method A search of electronic databases, the internet and Cochrane library was undertaken to identify relevant publications which were analysed in terms of quality. Evidence that has emerged from civilian and military practice that could influence the practice of major trauma imaging in future was discussed. Results The importance of speed in assessing patients suffering major trauma is becoming more recognised. There is growing evidence that the use of portable ultrasound at the site of major trauma as first line investigation has potential. In more stable patients, the evidence for whole body CT at the expense of radiography is also growing. The concern regarding availability and radiation dose related to CT scanning remain significant but with the outcome of the recent Major Trauma Review and improvements in CT scanning techniques, such concerns are being addressed. There is limited research in the use of MRI in relation to major trauma. Conclusion Ultrasound at the sight of major trauma has potential but further research will be needed. Factors such as operator training in particular need to be considered. CT scanning remains an important diagnostic tool for patients suffering major trauma and this is borne out by the Major Trauma Review and NICE guidelines. The availability of CT scanning in relation to accident and emergency scanning is a factor the Major Trauma Review has highlighted and the close proximity of new CT scanners to accident and emergency is a factor that will need to be taken into account in strategic planning. Given the growing evidence of CT involvement, the continued practice of cervical spine and pelvic radiography in cases of major trauma should be questioned.

O processo de recuperação das terras degradadas pela pecuária, principalmente no Brasil, tornou-se uma solução incontestável para atender à necessidade alimentar não somente do país, mas também mundial. Com o fim de avaliar a qualidade física de recuperação de áreas degradadas, propõe-se neste trabalho, aplicar o método de Tomografia Computadorizada de Raios-X (T.C.), mais precisamente o uso de um microtomógrafo não médico. As amostras de solo foram coletadas no entorno da Usina Hidrelétrica de Ilha Solteira (SP) e pastagens do MS. Foram selecionados seis tratamentos de solo para a aplicação de procedimentos técnicos: um ocupado por vegetação nativa (Cerrado), um de pastagem recuperada, um de pastagem degradada, outro de solo tratato com Astronium fraxinifolium (Gonçalo-alves) + Brachiaria decumbens + Lodo de esgoto, um de solo degradado/decapitado e um último de solo recuperado. Inicialmente, foi feito um estudo básico sobre os fundamentos da Física do Solo, o método de Tomografia Computadorizada e as técnicas de recuperação de solo. Em seguida foram obtidas as imagems tomográficas por meio de microtomógrafo e de software NRCon, pertencentes à Embrapa Instrumentação e à Faculdade de Odontologia da Unesp - Araraquara. Assim, baseado nessas imagens, foi utilizado o software CT-Analiser para a obtenção dos atributos físicos como densidade, tamanho dos agregados e porosidade, que são fundamentais para avaliação de qualidade ambiental de solo. Como resultado desse trabalho foram observadas diferenças qualitativas e quantitativas dos seis tipos de solo por meio das análises de imagem e, posteriormente, comparado com os resultados obtidos pelo método convencional. Por último, foi construído um modelo tridimensional para visualizar o interior das amostras de solo. Dessa forma, o trabalho mostrou a potencialidade e a aplicação do método de T.C. nas investigações de solo, em particular nos indicadores de qualidade física e ambiental dos solos estudados. / The process of recovery of land degraded by livestock, mainly in Brazil, has become an incontestable solution to meet the needs of national and international food. This dissertation reports on the application of the X-ray Computed Tomography, more precisely a non-medical microtomograph, to the analysis of the physical quality of soils in the degraded area recovering. The soil samples were collected in the surroundings of Usina Hidrelétrica de Ilha Solteira (SP) and pastures in MS. Six sites were selected for the application of the technical procedures: a portion occupied by native vegetation (cerrado), a recovered pasture, a degraded pasture, a pasture treated with Astronium fraxinifolium (Gonçalo-alves)+Brachiaria decumbens+sewage sludge, a pasture of degraded/beheaded soil and a recovered soil. Initially, a theoretical study of the Soil Physics, the Computerized Tomography method and the techniques of soil recovery was conducted. The tomographic images were obtained by means of a microtomograph and NRCon software from Embrapa Instrumentação and UNESP Dentistry School - Araraquara. The CT-Analyser software was used to obtain the physical attibutes, such as density, porosity and size of aggregates, which are fundamental to evaluate the physical characteristics of the soil. The image analysis showed qualitative and quantitative differences in the six types of soil and the results were compared with those obtained by the conventional method. A tridimensional model was constructed to show the interior of the soil samples. The study has proved the potential and application of the C.T. method to the soil investigations, especially in the indicators of the physical and environmental quality of the soils studied.

O processo de recuperação das terras degradadas pela pecuária, principalmente no Brasil, tornou-se uma solução incontestável para atender à necessidade alimentar não somente do país, mas também mundial. Com o fim de avaliar a qualidade física de recuperação de áreas degradadas, propõe-se neste trabalho, aplicar o método de Tomografia Computadorizada de Raios-X (T.C.), mais precisamente o uso de um microtomógrafo não médico. As amostras de solo foram coletadas no entorno da Usina Hidrelétrica de Ilha Solteira (SP) e pastagens do MS. Foram selecionados seis tratamentos de solo para a aplicação de procedimentos técnicos: um ocupado por vegetação nativa (Cerrado), um de pastagem recuperada, um de pastagem degradada, outro de solo tratato com Astronium fraxinifolium (Gonçalo-alves) + Brachiaria decumbens + Lodo de esgoto, um de solo degradado/decapitado e um último de solo recuperado. Inicialmente, foi feito um estudo básico sobre os fundamentos da Física do Solo, o método de Tomografia Computadorizada e as técnicas de recuperação de solo. Em seguida foram obtidas as imagems tomográficas por meio de microtomógrafo e de software NRCon, pertencentes à Embrapa Instrumentação e à Faculdade de Odontologia da Unesp - Araraquara. Assim, baseado nessas imagens, foi utilizado o software CT-Analiser para a obtenção dos atributos físicos como densidade, tamanho dos agregados e porosidade, que são fundamentais para avaliação de qualidade ambiental de solo. Como resultado desse trabalho foram observadas diferenças qualitativas e quantitativas dos seis tipos de solo por meio das análises de imagem e, posteriormente, comparado com os resultados obtidos pelo método convencional. Por último, foi construído um modelo tridimensional para visualizar o interior das amostras de solo. Dessa forma, o trabalho mostrou a potencialidade e a aplicação do método de T.C. nas investigações de solo, em particular nos indicadores de qualidade física e ambiental dos solos estudados. / The process of recovery of land degraded by livestock, mainly in Brazil, has become an incontestable solution to meet the needs of national and international food. This dissertation reports on the application of the X-ray Computed Tomography, more precisely a non-medical microtomograph, to the analysis of the physical quality of soils in the degraded area recovering. The soil samples were collected in the surroundings of Usina Hidrelétrica de Ilha Solteira (SP) and pastures in MS. Six sites were selected for the application of the technical procedures: a portion occupied by native vegetation (cerrado), a recovered pasture, a degraded pasture, a pasture treated with Astronium fraxinifolium (Gonçalo-alves)+Brachiaria decumbens+sewage sludge, a pasture of degraded/beheaded soil and a recovered soil. Initially, a theoretical study of the Soil Physics, the Computerized Tomography method and the techniques of soil recovery was conducted. The tomographic images were obtained by means of a microtomograph and NRCon software from Embrapa Instrumentação and UNESP Dentistry School - Araraquara. The CT-Analyser software was used to obtain the physical attibutes, such as density, porosity and size of aggregates, which are fundamental to evaluate the physical characteristics of the soil. The image analysis showed qualitative and quantitative differences in the six types of soil and the results were compared with those obtained by the conventional method. A tridimensional model was constructed to show the interior of the soil samples. The study has proved the potential and application of the C.T. method to the soil investigations, especially in the indicators of the physical and environmental quality of the soils studied.