Social phobia has become one of the commonest manifestations of fear in any society. This fear is often accompanied by major depression or social disabilities. With the awareness that fear can be aggravated in social situations, virtual reality researchers and psychologists have investigated the feasibility of a virtual reality system as a psychotherapeutic intervention to combat social phobia. Virtual reality technology has rapidly improved over the past few years, making for better interactions. Nevertheless, the field of virtual reality exposure therapy for social phobia is still in its infancy and various issues have yet to be resolved or event uncovered. The key concept of virtual reality exposure therapy in the treatment of social phobia is based on its characteristic of perceptual illusion - the sense of presence - as an anxiety-activating system, instead of conventional imaginal or in-vivo exposure techniques. Therefore, in order to provoke a significant level of anxiety in virtual environments, it is very important to understand the impact of perceptual presence factors in virtual reality exposure therapy. Hence, this research mainly aims to investigate all the aspects of the correlation between anxiety and the components of the virtual environment in a computer-generated social simulation. By understanding this, this thesis aims to provide a framework for the construction of effective virtual reality exposure therapy for social phobia care which enables anxiety stimuli to be controlled in a gradual manner as a conventional clinical approach. This thesis presents a series of experimental studies that have been conducted with a common theme: the function of 3D inhabitants and visual apparatus in anxiety-activating virtual social simulation, a job-interview. However, each study is conducted using different research objectives. The experimental results are presented in this thesis, with psycho-physiological approach, revealing a variation of the distribution of participants' anxiety states across various VR conditions. The overall conclusion of this research is that an appropriate realism of VR stimuli is essential in sustaining the state of anxiety over the course of VR exposure. The high fidelity of virtual environment generally provoke a greater degree of anxiety, but this research also shows that aspects of VR fidelity is more related to the mental representation of individuals to the context of the stressful situation rather than any technology that is being used.

Recent years have seen exponential increase in memory capacity for computer data storage. Increased bit density has been produced by decreasing feature sizes in microelectronic fabrication. As minimum microelectronic feature sizes are realized, new methods are being investigated to continue the increase in recording bit density. This report examines features which are necessary to produce an electron-tunneling based memory which is postulated to increase the data density by a factor of 105-106 over current manufactured memories. A description is given for combining tunneling microscopy with memory technology to achieve this high density memory. Experiments using a tunneling tip to produce nanometer scale features on a surface are recounted. The repeatability and durability of the produced features are investigated with a summary of these aspects included for various materials reported in the literature. Some necessary mechanical and electrical design criteria for a tunneling memory are obtained. Observed and reported inconsistency in nanometer lithography are attributed to nonpredictable tunneling currents and resulting tip-sample separations. Experimental and theoretical work scrutinizing tunneling currents as a function of tip-sample displacement is included. Other factors affecting the practicality of a tunneling based memory are also incorporated.

Plants can be characterised by a range of attributes, and measuring these attributes accurately and reliably is a major challenge for the horticulture industry. The measurement of those plant characteristics that are most relevant to a grower has previously been tackled almost exclusively by a combination of manual measurement and visual inspection. The purpose of this work is to propose an automated image analysis approach in order to provide an objective measure of plant attributes to remove subjective factors from assessment and to reduce labour requirements in the glasshouse. This thesis describes a stereopsis approach for estimating plant height, since height information cannot be easily determined from a single image. The stereopsis algorithm proposed in this thesis is efficient in terms of the running time, and is more accurate when compared with other algorithms. The estimated geometry, together with colour information from the image, are then used to build a statistical plant surface model, which represents all the information from the visible spectrum. A self-organising map approach can be adopted to model plant surface attributes, but the model can be improved by using a probabilistic model such as a mixture model formulated in a Bayesian framework. Details of both methods are discussed in this thesis. A Kalman filter is developed to track the plant model over time, extending the model to the time dimension, which enables smoothing of the noisy measurements to produce a development trend for a crop. The outcome of this work could lead to a number of potentially important applications in horticulture.

The main objective of this thesis is to make a contribution to knowledge regarding the nature of improvisation and bricolage activities in the practice of embedded software design and how the tensional relationship between process management and improvisation and bricolage can be balanced. There is a lack of understanding embedded systems development in practice, and how the difficulties correspond to prescribed and emergent processes in this context. In order to address this knowledge gap I conducted an in‐depth case study of an embedded system development project in the German automobile context between December 2004 and November 2008. The research adopted an interpretive approach, which involved the collection and analysis of qualitative data. Empirical data that was derived through interviews and observation revealed new insights as to how embedded systems are developed in practice. I adopt the position that emergent processes occur not randomly, but as purposeful agents that navigate through a turbulent environment of ongoing need to improvise with the items at hand. The finding indicates that the success to achieve the aims is bound to the capabilities to be continuously reflexive and induce corrective actions as appropriate. A theoretical conceptualisation disclosed measures that may enhance the capacity to be reflexive. The findings implied that process management frameworks help as scaffolding in order to practice improvisation and bricolage as a coping strategy. Moreover, improving the capabilities to cope with challenges means enhancing reflexive capabilities. The original contribution of this research is founded on rich descriptions and interpretations as to how embedded systems are developed in practice, and the theoretical conceptualisation that can aid to balance the tension between process management and improvisation and bricolage.

This doctoral research aimed to investigate how subject matter experts (SMEs) and game experts can collaborate to design and develop games for use in formal educational contexts. The research began with a literature review of key concepts and issues associated with game-based learning (GBL), which led to the process of defining and redefining the overarching research question, along with its scope and position in academia. A three-phase strategy was adopted to segregate the research into exploratory, confirmative and explanatory phases, wherein each phase comprised interrelated studies. These studies were integrated through the Spiral Research model to enable temporal focus shift, cross-case analyses and cross-case syntheses. In the exploratory studies, the perceived potentials of games and GBL in the formal educational context were examined revealing the differing views between SMEs and game experts. This in turn guided the conduct of the confirmative studies which compared the attitude of SMEs and game experts in both the 'usual' and the 'ideal' conditions towards GBL practice and collaboration that involves teachers, SMEs and educational game experts. Two questionnaire surveys were carried out, and the findings revealed that, under ideal conditions, both SMEs and game experts held positive attitudes to GBL—the games used, the teachers who use games in teaching, the studios that develop educational games, and the collaboration between SMEs and game experts. However, the respondents were uncertain whether the perceived 'ideal' GBL conditions were usually the case or not. Follow-up interviews were conducted in the explanatory phase in order to uncover the reasons behind these changes in attitudes. While a variety of reasons were found and presented as parts of the findings of the research, particularly the challenges faced in GBL practice and the problems encountered in GBL collaboration, this thesis asserts that effective communication between SMEs and game experts is the key success factor in resolving issues associated with GBL. Besides, there was a pressing need for models of GBL collaboration; hence the integrated GBL model was also developed. The model not only incorporates GBL practice into GBL collaboration, but also highlights the importance of effective communication in those processes. Despite being limited by methodological constraints and available resources, both the Spiral Research model and the integrated GBL collaboration model have made substantial contributions to the research into GBL, particularly for formal educational contexts.

This thesis discusses the topic of how to improve adaptive and personalized e-learning in order to provide novel learning experiences. A recent literature review revealed that adaptive and personalized e-learning systems are not widely used. There is a lack of interoperability between adaptive systems and learning management systems, in addition to limited collaborative and social features. First of all, this thesis investigates the interoperability issue via two case studies. The first case study focuses on how to achieve interoperability between adaptive systems and learning management systems using e-learning standards and the second case study focuses on how to augment e-learning standards with adaptive features. Secondly, this thesis proposes a new social framework for personalized e-learning, in order to provide adaptive and personalized e-learning platforms with new social features. This is not just about creating learning content, but also about developing new ways of learning. For instance, in the presented vision, adaptive learning does not refer to individuals only, but also to groups. Furthermore, the boundaries between authors and learners become less distinct in the Web 2.0 context. Finally, a new social personalized prototype is introduced based on the new social framework for personalized e-learning in order to test and evaluate this framework. The implementation and evaluation of the new system were carried out through a number of case studies.

Social and organisation theorists have become increasingly interested in studying information and communication technologies over the last two decades. This thesis examines how information and communication technologies are organised, and what is organised by information and communication technologies. The thesis contributes to the interest in detailed studies of information and communication technology through an analysis of the implementation and deployment of a mobile data system-the Vehicle Mounted Data System (VMDS)-by firefighters, fire crews and officers at a United Kingdom fire brigade. This thesis examines what becomes of the Vehicle Mounted Data System when it is introduced into a UK fire brigade. This includes an exposition of how recurring issues including the boundaries of the brigade, what is meant by standardisation and risk, what counts as information, and what is understood by devolved incident management is reordered as the VMDS becomes a constitutive part of the problematic fire service provision. The VMDS is bound up with reality constituting effects and this means that what is meant by technology and organisation becomes an important topic of scholarly study. This thesis develops a non-essentialist ontology of technology and organisation-an ontological turn in organisation theory. It is argued that the VMDS is a relational effect that is aligned with existing boundaries and assumptions at Hereford and Worcester Fire Brigade, that the VMDS is a multiple object that is a mutable mobile and is deployed not only to manage safety at incidents but also for managing performance and organisational flexibility, and that the instabilities of the VMDS are responded to ambivalently by various actors as they are enrolled in the collective upkeep of the VMDS. In analysing the Vehicle Mounted Data System a range of analytical resources are drawn upon, including, most significantly, actor-network theory, but also the writings of Deleuze and Guattari. The thesis concludes with a discussion of the politics of theory and suggests that researchers would remain faithful to their intellectual tradition and a sense of critical and creative purpose if they engaged with and helped to construct the heterogeneous ways in which technological devices such as the Vehicle Mounted Data System transform what organisation theorists understand by organisation.

The focus of this thesis is the study of mobile learning, specifically learning in different locations and under various contextual situations, from the perspective of university students. I initially derived and designed a theoretical mobile context-aware learning schedule (mCALS) framework from an extensive literature review. Its objective is to recommend appropriate learning materials to students based on their current locations and circumstances. The framework uses a learning schedule (i.e. electronic-based diary) to inform the location and available time a student has for learning/studying at a particular location. Thereafter, a number of factors are taken into consideration for the recommendation of appropriate learning materials. These are the student’s learning styles, knowledge level, concentration level, frequency of interruption at that location and their available time for learning/studying. In order to determine the potential deployment of the framework as a mobile learning application by intended users, I carried out three types of feasibility studies. First, a pedagogical study was conducted using interviews to explore together with students (a) what their learning requirements were when studying in a mobile environment, (b) whether the framework could potentially be used effectively to support their studies and, (c) using this user-centred understanding, refined user requirements of the framework. Second, a diary study was conducted where I collected data and analysed the usability feasibility of the framework by (a) determining whether students could plan their daily schedule ahead and keep to it, (b) ascertaining which learning contexts were important and, (c) establishing which learning materials were appropriate under which situations. Two validation studies were conducted. The first one was an online experiment utilising Java learning objects. Participants of this study were suggested appropriate learning objects to study with, based on their amount of available time, current motivation level for learning and their proficiency level of Java. The second validation study was an investigation into high-quality Java learning objects available in the public domain. Finally, a technical design of the framework was carried out to determine whether the framework at present could realistically be implemented using current mobile technologies. The data analyses of the feasibility studies show that (a) a learning schedule approach is successful to an extent in obtaining location and available time information to indicate accurate values of these contexts, (b) different learners may require different personalisation strategies when selecting appropriate learning materials for them in mobile environments, and (c) the mCALS framework is particularly well-suited for self-regulated students. I also proposed a set of suggestion rules which can be used to recommend appropriate Java learning materials to students in different contexts. The validation studies show that 1) the proposed suggestion rules are effective in recommending appropriate materials to learners in their situation, in order to enhance their learning experiences, and 2) there are a sufficiently large number of high-quality LOs available in the public domain that can be incorporated for use within my framework. Finally, the development of mCALS has been considered from three perspectives – pedagogical, usability and technical. These perspectives consist of critical components that should be considered when developing and evaluating mobile learning software applications. The results demonstrated that the mCALS framework can potentially be used by students in different locations and situations, and appropriate learning materials can be selected to them, in order to enhance their learning experiences.

The first cases of the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) were reported by the Center for Disease Control in Atlanta in the United States in 1981. At the time of completion of this thesis the numbers of cases of AIDS worldwide has risen to well in excess of 100 000. Dr. Roger Brittain, District Medical Officer and a Director of the Expert Systems and Decision Support Unit (ESDSU) at the University of Warwick believed that Information Technology could play a role in overcoming some of the problems related to AIDS. Principle among these was the problem of shortages of clinical and other expertise about this disorder in the United Kingdom. This thesis describes research relating to the attempts of a development team from the ESDSU to develop a computer based tool for resolving the problems of a dearth in AIDS-related expertise via an Action Research Programme. My role in the development team was principally in the areas of design and knowledge acquisition relating to the project. This thesis therefore concentrates on the design, knowledge acquisition and evolution of the computer based decision support tool that was developed. The thesis describes the application of Expert Systems and Information Systems Approaches to the problem and how these approaches were both shown to have deficiencies. However it seemed that the deficiencies in each approach were complementary. This led to the development of a model for a computer based decision support tool that inherited features of both an expert system and an information system. This "hybrid" tool was termed an expert advisory system and was designed to address multiple user groups with varying levels of expertise within each user group. The process of developing the Expert Advisory System model led to the invention of development aids such as the Domain Dictionary. Also it highlighted an often ignored problem in computer based decision support tools, that of responsibility for the advice of the tool. The problems of validation of an "active" decision support tool in which advice is accessed via a consultation are highlighted in the complex area of Medicine. This thesis proposes a possible solution in the form of an editorial board which would be responsible for the validation and maintenance of expertise contained in the decision support tool.

This research focuses on the Implementation of IT systems and public sector and national ID card projects in particular. Such projects have high expectations but low success rates. The study Investigated the factors contributing to IT projects failure through on extensive review of the existing literature. This was enriched and tested by close Involvement with the UAE national ID card project, surveys and In depth interviews with senior managers from other ID card projects and presentations and attendance at over 50 conferences on this subject. Many of the factors leading to either success or failure identified in many practical studies could be addressed through a well designed project management methodology. Based on the literature, practical experience, observations and feedback from practitioners a project management methodology; named PROMOTE - PROject Management Of Technology Endeavours - was developed and tested for the planning and Implementing large scale IT projects mainly In a government context. The US$200+ million dollar national ID programme In the United Arab Emirates was the main test vehicle. Its Innovations include a hybrid systems development/project management customer based philosophy, a number of new tools and techniques and the Introduction of a mentor for the project manager. To help assess the general applicability of the methodology it was also tested In the Saudi Arabia, Oman, and Bahrain national ID initiatives. The methodology phases were refined several times (and other phases were added) to address the problems Identified from UAE project, the literature, the experiences reported at GCC committee meetings and from other large scale Implementations around the world (from conferences and study visits to other countries). From the testing conducted, the methodology is believed to add a significant contribution to the field of IT projects Implementation and In Increasing the success chances of such projects. Such success should have a profound Impact on government services. The study also recognises that a better understanding of the new methodology and its contributions Is only possible through further research and application In other large scale IT projects. This should allow the extension of the applicability of this methodology to a much wider spectrum.