yes / Test results of nine recycled aggregate concretes and a control concrete using only natural aggregates are reported. The recycled aggregates used were classified into three different types according to their measured specific gravity and water absorption, namely, RG I for recycled coarse aggregate having a specific gravity of 2.53 and water absorption of 1.9%; RG III for recycled coarse aggregate having a specific gravity of 2.4 and water absorption of 6.2%; and RS II for recycled fine aggregate having a specific gravity of 2.36 and water absorption of 5.4%. The replacement levels of both recycled coarse and fine aggregates were 30, 50, and 100% in separate mixtures. Slump loss and the amount of bleeding with time were recorded for fresh concrete. Compressive and tensile strengths, moduli of rupture and elasticity, and unrestrained shrinkage strain were also measured for hardened concrete. The properties of fresh and hardened concrete tested, together with a comprehensive database reported in the literature, were evaluated with respect to the relative water absorption of aggregates combining the quality and volume of recycled aggregates used. In addition, the properties of hardened concrete with different replacement levels and quality of recycled aggregates were compared with the design equations of ACI 318-05 and empirical equations proposed by Oluokun for natural aggregate concrete, whenever possible. Test results clearly showed that the properties of fresh and hardened concrete containing recycled aggregates were dependent on the relative water absorption of aggregates. In addition, the moduli of rupture and elasticity of recycled aggregate concrete were lower than the design equations specified in ACI 318-05, when the relative water absorption of aggregates is above 2.5% and 3.0%, respectively.

An experimental program was conducted to establish a better understanding of the effect of Portland cement concrete's (PCC' s) basic properties on its dielectric properties over a wideband of frequency (0.1 MHz-10 GHz). Other parameters that may influence measured dielectric properties were investigated. These include chlorides presence in PCC, deterioration (due to alkali silica reaction [ASR] and freezing and thawing [Fff] damage), delamination, and segregation. In addition, the effect of different sizes of delaminated areas (filled with water) was evaluated using measured dielectric properties and waveform amplitude. Three different electromagnetic wave (EM) setups were used to conduct those measurements: parallel plate capacitor (0.1-40 MHz), coaxial transmission line (100 MHz to 1 GHz), and TEM antenna (0.5-10 GHz). The setups were designed and built by engineers from the Civil and Electrical Engineering Departments at Virginia Tech as a part of the overall research study. Testing results indicated the feasibility of using EM to detect changes in the basic properties of PCC over low RF using the parallel plate capacitor. This included the effect of curing time, water to cement (w/c) ratio, aggregate type, cement type, and air entrainment. The effect of curing time on the complex dielectric constant of PCC was quantitatively determined. However, the success in detecting changes in the PCC basic properties was limited at the microwave frequency range of 100 MHz to 10 GHz. Changes in the complex dielectric constant due to chloride intrusion into PCC were quantitatively significant only over the low radio wave frequency. The ASR in PCC was successfully identified by measured complex dielectric constant over the low RF, especially less than 20 MHz. Insignificant changes in the complex dielectric constant over the frequency range of 0.1 MHz to 1 GHz was noted when PCC was exposed to FIT cycles. Complex dielectric constant and waveform amplitude measurements of pce slabs over frequency range of 1 to 10 GHz showed significant changes with water content (in PCC); due to further hydration or injecting of water into empty delaminated areas. Waveform amplitude showed significant sensitivity to delamination and chlorides and low sensitivity to segregation. After testing several mixture theories to identify the most appropriate theory that is capable of predicting the dielectric constant of PCC (based on the dielectric properties of its components), Bruggemenn mixture theory was found to be the most feasible. / Ph. D.

FundaÃÃo de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Cearà / Departamento Nacional de ProduÃÃo Mineral / The natural sand used in civil construction has become scarce due to the exhaustion of natural reserves and environmental constraints imposed by the regulatory agencies. Consequently, the prices of those inputs are likely to increase, burdening the consumer. In search of alternatives, sustainable and economical, this study proposes characterize crushed sand from quarries in the Fortaleza metropolitan region (RMF) and evaluate its implementation, as fine aggregate, in conventional concrete, as a replacement for natural sand. The experimental study is divided into two stages. The first one is the characterization of the physical, chemical and petrographical properties of eight kinds of crushed sand from RMF through the grading, density, water absorption, pulverulent material content, bulk density, grain shape analysis, alkali-aggregate reaction, petrographic analysis, X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) tests. The second step is the properties evaluation of the concretes produced with crushed sand incorporation. The tool "design and analysis of experiments" was used. The crushed sands were rated into three groups and a representative sand for each group was used in the concrete production, where two independent factors (water/cement ratio and crushed sand replacement content) were determined by ranging in three levels each one of them. The measurement variables analyzed were the additive consumption, compressive strength, diametral tensile strength, shrinkage, water absorption, void ratios, density and natural carbonation. The results suggest the viability of using crushed sand to replace natural sand in conventional concrete by 75%, given that the workability can be achieved with the use of plasticizing additives, and in general, there is an increase in the compression resistance, reduced water absorption and void ratios, in other properties the crushed sand incorporation produces no significant effects, therefore their use is considered to be technically feasible. / A areia natural utilizada na construÃÃo civil tem se tornado escassa devido ao esgotamento de reservas naturais e Ãs restriÃÃes ambientais impostas pelos ÃrgÃos fiscalizadores. Por consequÃncia, os preÃos desse insumo tendem a aumentar, onerando o consumidor final. Em busca de alternativas, sustentÃveis e econÃmicas, propÃe-se neste estudo caracterizar areias de britagem provenientes de pedreiras da RegiÃo Metropolitana de Fortaleza (RMF) e avaliar sua aplicaÃÃo, como agregado miÃdo, em concreto convencional, em substituiÃÃo à areia natural. O trabalho experimental està dividido em duas etapas. A primeira à a caracterizaÃÃo das propriedades fÃsicas, quÃmicas e petrogrÃficas de oitos tipos de areia de britagem da RMF, atravÃs dos ensaios de granulometria, massa especÃfica, absorÃÃo de Ãgua, teor de material pulverulento, massa unitÃria, anÃlise de forma dos grÃos, reaÃÃo Ãlcali-agregado, anÃlise petrogrÃfica, espectometria de fluorescÃncia de raios X (FRX) e difraÃÃo de raios X (DRX). A segunda etapa à a avaliaÃÃo das propriedades dos concretos produzidos com a incorporaÃÃo de areia de britagem. Utilizou-se a ferramenta âplanejamento de experimentosâ. Classificou-se as areias de britagem em trÃs grupos, sendo utilizada uma areia representante para cada grupo na produÃÃo dos concretos, onde se determinou dois fatores independentes (relaÃÃo Ãgua/cimento e teor de substituiÃÃo de areia de britagem) variando em trÃs nÃveis cada. As variÃveis de resposta analisadas foram: consumo de aditivo, resistÃncia à compressÃo, resistÃncia à traÃÃo diametral, retraÃÃo por secagem, absorÃÃo de Ãgua, Ãndices de vazios, massa especÃfica e carbonataÃÃo natural. Os resultados apontam a viabilidade da utilizaÃÃo de areia de britagem em substituiÃÃo à areia natural em concretos convencionais em atà 75%, tendo em vista que a trabalhabilidade pode ser alcanÃada com a utilizaÃÃo de aditivos plastificantes, e de modo geral, observa-se um incremento na resistÃncia à compressÃo, reduÃÃo da absorÃÃo de Ãgua e Ãndices de vazios, nas demais propriedades a incorporaÃÃo de areia de britagem nÃo produz efeitos significativos, portanto, sua utilizaÃÃo à considerado tecnicamente viÃvel.

Vários são os processos de deterioração do concreto e a reação álcali-agregado (RAA) se agrupa na categoria de degradação por processo químico. Como resultado da reação e em presença de umidade, são formados produtos que se expandem, podendo provocar a fissuração, perda de resistência, aumento da deformação, perda de funcionalidade, redução da durabilidade da estrutura, dentre outros. Pode-se dizer que o conhecimento quanto à prevenção da reação é vasto, porém o mesmo não pode ser dito sobre o seu mecanismo. Uma vez existindo a reação, ainda não se conhece uma maneira adequada para evitar sua continuidade. O trabalho consistiu no estudo de casos de concretos afetados pela reação álcaliagregado nas cinco usinas hidrelétricas que compõem o Complexo Hidrelétrico Paulo Afonso, de responsabilidade da Companhia Hidro Elétrica do São Francisco CHESF, subsidiária das Centrais Elétricas Brasileiras S/A ELETROBRÁS e responsável por gerar e transmitir energia elétrica para a região nordeste do Brasil. Os concretos das usinas possuem idades variando entre 20 e 50 anos. Foram avaliadas algumas propriedades físicas, químicas, mineralógicas, mecânicas e elásticas dos concretos, como: reatividade potencial, teor de álcalis do concreto, índice de deterioração, massa específica, resistência à compressão, resistência à tração por compressão diametral, módulo de elasticidade, coeficiente de Poisson e fluência. O principal interesse deste estudo é verificar se algumas das características dos concretos das usinas são afetadas devido à reação álcali-agregado. Os resultados indicam que, apesar dos concretos terem sido fabricados há décadas, seu potencial reativo ainda é bastante elevado, mas que as estruturas de concreto se apresentam pouco deterioradas quando comparadas a outras estruturas. Com relação às propriedades mecânicas, não foi observada redução significativa das resistências à compressão, tração e fluência, tendo sido o módulo de elasticidade a propriedade mais sensível aos efeitos da RAA. / Several are the concrete deterioration processes and the alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) is classified as a chemical deterioration process. As a reaction result and in an umid environment expansion products are formed, being able to cause cracking, loss of strength, increase of deformation, loss of functionality, reduction of the durability of the structure, amongst others. The knowledge of reaction prevention is vast, but the same cannot be said about its mechanism. Once the reaction exists, there is not yet a way to avoid its continuity. The study was carried out in five hydroelectric plants of the Paulo Afonso Hydroelectric System, whose concrete was affeted by AAR. These dams are responsable for generating energy for the northeast of Brazil. The ages of the concretes are between 20 to 50 years. Some physical, chemical, mineralogical, mechanical and elastic properties of the concrete were evaluated, such as: potential reactivity, alkali content, deterioration index, bulk density, compressive strength, tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, Poissons ratio and creep. The main objective of this study is to evaluate if some of the characteristics of the concretes are affected by the AAR. The results indicate that, although the concretes have been manufactured decades ago, the potential reactivity is still high, but the concrete structures are not much deteriorated. With regard to the mechanical properties, it was not observed significant reduction on the compressive strength, tensile strength, creep, but the modulus of elasticity was the most sensible concrete characteristic affected by the AAR.

Vários são os processos de deterioração do concreto e a reação álcali-agregado (RAA) se agrupa na categoria de degradação por processo químico. Como resultado da reação e em presença de umidade, são formados produtos que se expandem, podendo provocar a fissuração, perda de resistência, aumento da deformação, perda de funcionalidade, redução da durabilidade da estrutura, dentre outros. Pode-se dizer que o conhecimento quanto à prevenção da reação é vasto, porém o mesmo não pode ser dito sobre o seu mecanismo. Uma vez existindo a reação, ainda não se conhece uma maneira adequada para evitar sua continuidade. O trabalho consistiu no estudo de casos de concretos afetados pela reação álcaliagregado nas cinco usinas hidrelétricas que compõem o Complexo Hidrelétrico Paulo Afonso, de responsabilidade da Companhia Hidro Elétrica do São Francisco CHESF, subsidiária das Centrais Elétricas Brasileiras S/A ELETROBRÁS e responsável por gerar e transmitir energia elétrica para a região nordeste do Brasil. Os concretos das usinas possuem idades variando entre 20 e 50 anos. Foram avaliadas algumas propriedades físicas, químicas, mineralógicas, mecânicas e elásticas dos concretos, como: reatividade potencial, teor de álcalis do concreto, índice de deterioração, massa específica, resistência à compressão, resistência à tração por compressão diametral, módulo de elasticidade, coeficiente de Poisson e fluência. O principal interesse deste estudo é verificar se algumas das características dos concretos das usinas são afetadas devido à reação álcali-agregado. Os resultados indicam que, apesar dos concretos terem sido fabricados há décadas, seu potencial reativo ainda é bastante elevado, mas que as estruturas de concreto se apresentam pouco deterioradas quando comparadas a outras estruturas. Com relação às propriedades mecânicas, não foi observada redução significativa das resistências à compressão, tração e fluência, tendo sido o módulo de elasticidade a propriedade mais sensível aos efeitos da RAA. / Several are the concrete deterioration processes and the alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) is classified as a chemical deterioration process. As a reaction result and in an umid environment expansion products are formed, being able to cause cracking, loss of strength, increase of deformation, loss of functionality, reduction of the durability of the structure, amongst others. The knowledge of reaction prevention is vast, but the same cannot be said about its mechanism. Once the reaction exists, there is not yet a way to avoid its continuity. The study was carried out in five hydroelectric plants of the Paulo Afonso Hydroelectric System, whose concrete was affeted by AAR. These dams are responsable for generating energy for the northeast of Brazil. The ages of the concretes are between 20 to 50 years. Some physical, chemical, mineralogical, mechanical and elastic properties of the concrete were evaluated, such as: potential reactivity, alkali content, deterioration index, bulk density, compressive strength, tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, Poissons ratio and creep. The main objective of this study is to evaluate if some of the characteristics of the concretes are affected by the AAR. The results indicate that, although the concretes have been manufactured decades ago, the potential reactivity is still high, but the concrete structures are not much deteriorated. With regard to the mechanical properties, it was not observed significant reduction on the compressive strength, tensile strength, creep, but the modulus of elasticity was the most sensible concrete characteristic affected by the AAR.

Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is stored at a cryogenic temperatures ≤ -160°C and around atmospheric pressure to insure the minimum storage volume in tanks. The demand for LNG has been increasing as a primary source of energy. Therefore, there is significant interest in the construction of LNG tanks to achieve low cost and safe storage. Three systems are typically used to store LNG: single containment, double containment, and full containment. Concrete is used in these containment systems, and consequently, understanding concrete behavior and properties at cryogenic temperatures is important. The research documented in this thesis deals with computational analysis of the behavior of concrete subjected to cryogenic temperatures. The analysis focuses on the effect of aggregate sizes, coefficient of thermal expansion, volume fraction, and the shape of aggregate on damage of concrete subjected to cryogenic temperatures. The analysis is performed by developing a computational model using the finite element software ABAQUS. In this model, concrete is considered as a 3- phase composite material in a meso-scale structure: mortar matrix, aggregate, and interfacial transmission zone (ITZ). The Concrete Damage Plasticity model in ABAQUS is used to represent the mortar and ITZ phases of concrete. This model has the advantage of accounting for the effect of temperature on material properties. The aggregate phase is modeled as a linear-elastic material. The model parameters are selected based on comprehensive literature review of material properties at different temperatures. The finite element results provide very useful insight on the effects of concrete mixture design and properties on resistance to damage. The most important factor that affected damage development was the difference in the coefficient of thermal expansion between the mortar and aggregates. Models in which the mortar and aggregate had close values of positive coefficients experienced less damage. The model with irregular shape particles experienced more localized damage than the model with circular shape particles. The model was successful in demonstrating the effect of using air entrained concrete in reducing damage. The damage results predicted by the model for air entrained and non-air entrained concrete are validated by comparing them with experimental data from the literature. The analysis validated the capabilities of the mode in simulating the effect of reduction in temperature on damage. The modeling results and the findings from the literature review were used to put forward recommendations regarding the characteristics of concrete used in LNG storage.

The Soil Water Retention Curve (SWRC) of different soils has been researched thoroughly by multiple Geotechnical Engineers. The interpretation of the SWRC for a specific soil leads to the identification of certain properties of the soil. The SWRC typically involves a plot of suction measurements (on a logarithmic scale) against the volumetric water content or degree of saturation of the soil. This project aims to determine a manner in which concrete properties (such as durability, porosity, shrinkage, strength and stiffness) can be estimated through suction measurements. The Dew Point PotentiaMeter (WP4C) apparatus was used to measure the suctions of different concrete mixtures, as well as to derive the water retention curve of concrete. A cement paste study was first conducted to determine whether this apparatus is able to deliver representative results, which it is. It was discovered that the water retention curve of concrete is similar to a bimodal SWRC identified by Geotechnical Engineers. Thereafter, a mortar study was completed to determine if the water retention curves can be used to estimate different concrete properties. Three different porosity tests were investigated during this research study, namely the X-ray test, the Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry (MIP) test and a simple test method described in the durability index testing procedure manual assembled by University of Cape Town, University of the Witwatersrand and CoMSIRU. It was concluded that the MIP test and the simple test method described in the durability index testing procedure manual gave the most comparable results with regards to literature. The shrinkage of the concrete mixture was investigated to determine a relationship between the suctions and the shrinkage of the concrete. Different strength tests of all the concrete mixtures were also investigated, namely the flexural test, the compressive test, the splitting cylinder test and the E-value test (stiffness). It was concluded that there was a definite trend between the suction measurements and the specific concrete properties tested. The water retention curve has the potential to describe various properties of different concrete mixtures. / Dissertation (MEng (Structural Engineering))--University of Pretoria, 2020. / Civil Engineering / MEng (Structural Engineering) / Unrestricted

No description available.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T14:07:19Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DianaCSL.pdf: 800391 bytes, checksum: c85f3fef7e600f91edb93d3096219c80 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2005-11-25 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior / The addition of active silica potentially improves the quality of concrete due to its high reactivity and pore refinement effect. The reactivity of silica is likely related to its charge density. Variations in surface charge alter the reactivity of the material consequently affecting the properties of concrete. The present study aimed at investigating variations in the charge density of silica as a function of acid treatments using nitric or phosphoric acid and different pH values (2.0, 4.0 and 6.0). Effects on concrete properties including slump, mechanical strength, permeability and chloride corrosion were evaluated. To that end, a statistical analysis was carried out and empirical models that correlate studied parameters (pH, acid and cement) with concrete properties were established. The quality of the models was tested by variance analysis. The results revealed that the addition of silica was efficiency in improving the properties of concrete, especially the electrochemical parameters. The addition of silica treated using nitric acid at pH = 4.0 displayed the best cement performance including highest strength, reduced permeability and lowest corrosion current / A adi??o da s?lica ativa ao concreto melhora a qualidade deste material, amplamente utilizado na Constru??o Civil, devido ? a??o dos efeitos: alta reatividade e refinamento dos poros. Acreditando-se que a reatividade da s?lica est? relacionada ? sua densidade de carga, uma varia??o da carga superficial modifica a reatividade do material, e consequentemente as propriedades do concreto. Assim, este trabalho objetiva estudar o efeito da varia??o da densidade de carga superficial da s?lica tratada com solu??es de ?cidos n?trico e fosf?rico a diferentes pHs: 2,0; 4,0 e 6,0 em propriedades do concreto: abatimento, resist?ncia ? compress?o, permeabilidade e par?metros indicativos do processo de corros?o por cloreto. Para tanto, realizou-se um planejamento experimental com a finalidade de obter modelos emp?ricos que relacionam as propriedades e par?metros avaliados com as vari?veis em estudo: pH, tipo de ?cido e tipo de cimento, bem como a an?lise de vari?ncia indicativa da qualidade do modelo proposto em rela??o ?s observa??es experimentais. Os resultados comprovaram a efic?cia da adi??o de s?lica ativa na mistura de concreto ?s propriedades estudadas. Indicam que uma varia??o na densidade de carga superficial da s?lica usada na confec??o de corpos de prova de concreto modifica as propriedades e par?metros eletroqu?micos estudados e que, o concreto com uso de s?lica tratada com solu??o de ?cido n?trico de pH 4,0, apresentou melhor qualidade: maior resist?ncia ? compress?o, menor permeabilidade e menor corrente de corros?o, quando tomados em rela??o aos demais

Abstract : Wastepaper sludge ash (WSA) is generated by a cogeneration station by burning wastepaper sludge. It mainly consists of amorphous aluminosilicate phase, anhydrite, gehlenite, calcite, lime, C2S, C3A, quartz, anorthite, traces of mayenite. Because of its free lime content (~10%), WSA suspension has a high pH (13). Previous researchers have found that the WSA composition has poor robustness and the variations lead to some unsoundness for Portland cement (PC) blended WSA concrete. This thesis focused on the use of WSA in different types of concrete mixes to avoid the deleterious effect of the expansion due to the WSA hydration. As a result, WSA were used in making alkali-activated materials (AAMs) as a precursor source and as a potential activator in consideration of its amorphous content and the high alkaline nature. Moreover, the autogenous shrinkage behavior of PC concrete at low w/b ratio was used in order to compensate the expansion effect due to WSA. The concrete properties as well as the volume change were investigated for the modified WSA blended concrete. The reaction mechanism and microstructure of newly formed binder were evaluated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). When WSA was used as precursor, the results showed incompatible reaction between WSA and alkaline solution. The mixtures were not workable and provided very low compressive strength no matter what kinds of chemical activators were used. This was due to the metallic aluminum in WSA, which releases abundant hydrogen gas when WSA reacts with strong alkaline solution. Besides, the results of this thesis showed that WSA can activate the glassy phase contained in slag, glass powder (GP) and class F fly ash (FFA) with an optimum blended ratio of 50:50. The WSA/slag (mass ratio of 50:50) mortar (w/b of 0.47) attained 46 MPa at 28 days without heat curing assistance. A significant fast setting was noticed for the WSA-activated binder due to the C3A phase, free lime and metallic aluminum contained in the WSA. Adding 5% of gypsum can delay the fast setting, but this greatly increased the potential risk of intern sulfate attack. The XRD, TGA and calorimetry analyses demonstrated the formation of ettringite, C-S-H, portlandite, hydrogarnet and calcium carboaluminate in the hydrated binder. The mechanical performance of different binder was closely related to the microstructure of corresponding binder which was proved by the SEM observation. The hydrated WSA/slag and WSA/FFA binder formed a C-A-S-H type of gel with lower Ca/Si ratio (0.47~1.6). A hybrid gel (i.e. C-N-A-S-H) was observed for the WSA/GP binder with a very low Ca/Si ratio (0.26) and Na/Si ratio (0.03). The SEM/EDX analyses displayed the formation of expansive gel (ettringite and thaumasite) in the gypsum added WSA/slag concrete. The gradual emission of hydrogen gas due to the reaction of WSA with alkaline environment significantly increased the porosity and degraded the microstructure of hydrated matrix after the setting. In the last phase of this research WSA-PC blended binder was tailored to form a high autogenous shrinkage concrete in order to compensate the initial expansion. Different binders were proportioned with PC, WSA, silica fume or slag. The microstructure and mechanical properties of concrete can be improved by decreasing w/b ratios and by incorporating silica fume or slag. The 28-day compressive strength of WSA-blended concrete was above 22 MPa and reached 45 MPa when silica fume was added. The PC concrete incorporating silica fume or slag tended to develop higher autogenous shrinkage at low w/b ratios, and thus the ternary binder with the addition of WSA inhibited the long term shrinkage due to the initial expansion property to WSA. In the restrained shrinkage test, the concrete ring incorporating the ternary binder (PC/WSA/slag) revealed negligible potential to cracking up to 96 days as a result of the offset effect by WSA expansion. The WSA blended regular concrete could be produced for potential applications with reduced expansion, good mechanical property and lower permeability. / Résumé : Les cendres de boues de désencrage (CBD) sont générées par une centrale de cogénération par combustion boues de désencrage. Ils se composent principalement de phase amorphe d'aluminosilicate, anhydrite, gehlenite, calcite, chaux, C2S, C3A, quartz, anorthite, des traces de mayénite. En raison de leur teneur en chaux libre (~ 10%), CBD ont un pH élevé (13). Les chercheurs précédents ont montré que la composition des CDB a une mauvaise robustesse et les variations conduisent à une certaine inconsistance pour le béton avec un mélange de ciment Portland (CP) et des CBD. Cette thèse a porté sur l'utilisation des CBD dans différents types de mélanges de béton pour éviter l'effet délétère de l'expansion due à l'hydratation des CBD. Par conséquent, les CBD ont été utilisées dans la fabrication des matériaux à activation alcaline (MAA), en tant que source précurseur et comme activateur potentiel en tenant compte de sa teneur en matière amorphe et la nature très alcaline des CBD. De plus, le retrait endogène du béton avec CP à faible rapport E/L a été utilisé afin de compenser l'effet d'expansion en raison des CBD. Les propriétés du béton ainsi que le changement de volume ont été étudiés pour le béton mélangé avec des CBD modifiés. Le mécanisme réactionnel et la microstructure du liant nouvellement formé a été évaluée par la diffraction aux rayons X diffraction (DRX), calorimétrie, l'analyse thermogravimétrique (ATG), microscopie électronique à balayage (MEB) et spectroscopie à dispersion d'énergie aux rayons X (DEX). Quand les CBD ont été utilisés comme précurseur, les résultats ont montré des réactions incompatibles entre CBD et une solution alcaline. Les mélanges ne sont pas maniables et donnent de très faibles résistances en compression, peu importe le type d'activateurs chimiques utilisés. Cela est dû à l'aluminium métallique dans les CBD, qui permet de libérer de l'hydrogène gazeux en abondance quand les CBD réagissent avec une solution alcaline forte. D'ailleurs, les résultats de ces recherches ont montré que les CBD peuvent activer la phase amorphe contenue dans le laitier, poudre de verre (PV) et les cendres volantes de classe F (CVF) avec un rapport de mélange optimal de 50:50. Un mortier avec un rapport massique 50:50 de CBD et de laitier (E/L de 0,47) atteint 46 MPa à 28 jours sans l’aide d’un murissement à chaud. Une prise rapide significative a été notée pour le liant CBD activé en raison de la phase C3A, chaux libre et l’aluminium métallique impliqué dans les CBD. L’ajout de 5% de gypse peut retarder la prise rapide, mais augmente grandement le risque potentiel de l’attaque au sulfate interne. Le DRX, ATG et l’analyse calorimétrique ont démontré la formation d'ettringite, C-S-H, la portlandite, hydrogrenat et carboaluminate de calcium dans le liant hydraté. Les différentes performances mécaniques du liant ont été étroitement liées à la microstructure correspondante qui a été prouvée par le MEB. Les liants hydratés CBD/laitier et CBD/CVF ont formé un type de gel C-A-S-H avec un faible rapport Ca/Si (0,47 ~ 1,6). On a observé un gel hybride (à savoir C-N-A-S-H) pour le liant CBD/PV avec un des très faibles rapports Ca/Si (0,26) et Na/Si (0,03). Les analyses MEB/DRX ont montré une formation de gel expansive (d’ettringite et de thaumasite) dans le gypse ajouté au béton avec les CBD et le laitier. L'émission progressive de l'hydrogène gazeux en raison de la réaction des CBD dans un environnement alcaline a augmenté la porosité et la dégradation de la microstructure de matrice hydratée après la prise. Dans la dernière phase de cette recherche, le liant avec un mélange de CBD et de CP a été développé pour former un retrait autogène élevé, afin de compenser l'expansion initiale. Différents liants ont été préparés avec le CP, CBD, la fumée de silice ou du laitier. La microstructure et les propriétés mécaniques du béton peuvent être améliorées en diminuant les rapports E/L et en incorporant la fumée de silice ou du laitier. La résistance en compression à 28 jours du béton aux CBD était supérieure à 22 MPa et atteint 45MPa lorsqu'on a ajouté de la fumée de silice. Le béton avec du CP incorporant de la fumée de silice ou du laitier ont tendance à développer un retrait endogène plus élevée à de faibles rapports E/L, et donc le liant ternaire avec l'ajout des CBD réduit le retrait à long terme en raison de la propriété d’expansion initiale des CBD. Dans l'essai de retrait empêché, l'anneau en béton incorporant le liant ternaire (CP/CBD/laitier) a révélé un potentiel négligeable à la fissuration jusqu'à 96 jours en raison de l'effet de décalage de l'expansion des CBD. Des liants modifiés avec des CBD peuvent être utilisés dans des mélanges de béton ordinaire pour des applications potentielles avec des expansions réduites, des bonnes propriétés mécaniques et une faible perméabilité.