Worldwide marine ecosystems are facing unprecedented threats, and the biodiversity crisis is paralleled by a decline in Indigenous cultures and languages. Increasingly, Indigenous peoples’ abilities to practice their traditional livelihoods and cultures are reduced, but there are many examples of cultural resurgence. My thesis was based on a collaboration for marine conservation planning for Tl’ches between the Songhees Nation and researchers from the University of Victoria. The primary objectives for my thesis were to 1) to document the Songhees marine conservation planning process, and compare it to systematic conservation planning to outline the similarities, differences, and highlight the uniqueness of an Indigenous-led planning approach and 2) to systematically document and integrate culturally significant species and their habitats into the Songhees stewardship vision for the marine use plan. I achieved my first objective by systematically documenting and showcasing the Indigenous-led marine conservation planning process of the Songhees Nation to reclaim and further stewardship over the Tl’ches archipelago near Victoria, BC. I ascribed process steps to the Songhees marine conservation planning approach and compared these steps to the traditional systematic conservation planning (SCP) steps as laid out by Pressey and Bottrill (2009). The Songhees approach showed similarities to SCP in the initial scoping phase of the marine conservation planning, in the review and compiling of existing data prior to the collection of data as well as the focus on focal species such as culturally important species. My second objective was accomplished by applying and evaluating the remotely operated vehicle (ROV) Trident OpenROV as part of the Songhees marine conservation planning process around Tl’ches. This objective had three main outcomes: 1) I evaluated the marine ecological data collection capabilities for the Trident and 2) my surveys resulted in a systematic benthos classification and documentation of the algal community as well as a baseline of Songhees culturally important species. 3) I evaluated the ability of the Trident to provide high resolution ecological data to inform a marine use planning process. I found the Trident to be a capable tool to conduct systematic marine surveying despite some limitations such as low maneuverability in moderate to high current environments and dense kelp areas. I was able to document 14 of 25 culturally important species and 28 species of algae and seaweeds. I was also able to establish highly stressed environments suited for future restoration efforts. My research saw the creation of the Songhees Nation Marine Use Plan. The plan, along with the associated permanent data collection and compilation, can serve as a basis and guide to the Songhees Nation to initiate a monitoring program. Given the complicated jurisdictional landscape over the archipelago, the Songhees Nation Marine Use Plan could help strengthen assertions to exclusive stewardship and aid in creating a basis for dialogue between other stakeholders such as the Province of British Columbia. My collaboration fills a gap in the marine conservation planning literature by providing an example of an Indigenous-led marine conservation planning process according to the priorities of the Songhees Nation. / Graduate

No description available.

Biodiversity is declining globally due to mounting anthropogenic threats. Actions to protect biodiversity against threats can be costly, involving land purchase, invasive species management, and inflicting opportunity costs of lost revenue and livelihoods in conservation areas. Governments and conservation organisations are under increasing pressure to deliver the greatest benefits from conservation funds, and to minimise conflicts between conservation and other human priorities. Most conservation planning approaches are limited in their ability to assist with cost-effective funding allocation decisions. First, approaches often lack quantifiable objectives and appropriate tools. Second, approaches rarely consider economic information, such as spatially explicit data on the costs of conservation actions. In this thesis I address these two limitations, which often co-occur, in spatial conservation planning. Problem definition includes specifying a quantifiable objective, a set of constraints and control variables, and knowledge of the system. A simple conservation objective is to protect target amounts of biodiversity features, such as 15% of the range of each species and vegetation type, over a minimal total reserve area. Here, targets are the constraints and the control variables are the decisions of whether or not to conserve each site. Target-based conservation planning is the dominant spatial prioritisation approach, but has been criticised for failing to protect untargeted portions of biodiversity and for employing targets too low to ensure species persistence. In Chapter 2, I review target-based systematic conservation planning, discovering that many perceived limitations can be overcome with current developments in research and software and better communication, whilst acknowledging the value of alternative approaches. Conservation planning objectives are becoming increasingly complex due to the need to conserve many kinds of features, such as species, habitat types, and ecosystem services. Measures of the spatial congruence between features is often used to determine if one feature is a good surrogate for representing another and whether multiple features can be easily captured in a single plan. In Chapter 3 I review the use of congruence metrics in conservation planning research, explaining the differences between the three most common metrics – spatial correlation, hotspot overlap, incidental representation – and demonstrating why high values in one metric can coincide with low values in another. Most importantly, I show that integrated systematic conservation planning, rather than congruence metrics, is the only way to determine how efficient it will be to protect multiple features in a reserve system. While conservation planning has an implicit goal of cost-efficiency, spatially explicit data on the costs of conservation action are rarely considered. Prioritisation analyses that do not consider conservation costs can lead to the misallocation of funds and high opportunity costs. In Chapter 4 I carry out a global analysis at 1º resolution to identify areas that could protect targets of 10% of every mammal species’ range whilst minimising the opportunity costs of forgone agricultural production. The a priori inclusion of opportunity costs reduced the cost of meeting conservation targets by at least 30%. I then compare cost-effective allocation of funds to actual funding allocation by international conservation agencies in 2006, highlighting globally important, threatened and under-funded regions. While estimates of conservation opportunity costs can increase conservation planning efficiency, there are often various actions under consideration, each with different associated costs. The definition of specific actions, and their respective costs, is rarely considered in conservation planning. In Chapter 5 I develop cost surfaces for two conservation actions in Australia (i) land purchase for reservation estimated by unimproved land values and (ii) stewardship payments to private landholders to conserve biodiversity estimated by forgone agricultural production. I then identify priority areas at a 10 km2 resolution for conserving 15% of the pre-clearing extent of a range of biodiversity features by these actions. I demonstrate that using cost data to reflect specific conservation actions minimises improves financial efficiency by up to two-fold. Cost-effective conservation planning is also hindered by uncertainties in estimates of conservation costs. In Chapter 6 I carry out the first comprehensive sensitivity analysis of conservation priorities to cost value, using the same goal as in Chapter 5, but restricting planning to reservation in Queensland, which is the Australian state with the best quality unimproved land value data. First, I show that sites which are essential or unhelpful for meeting conservation targets maintain a high and low priority status respectively, over a large range of cost data (1-400% of their estimated cost). Medium priority sites are sensitive to estimates of cost, and represent the greatest opportunities to make cost-effective decisions. Next I develop a simple approach for planning with uncertain cost data, where priorities can be updated as real information on the cost of a parcel of land becomes available. This chapter shows that uncertain cost data is useful for conservation planning. Potentially cost-effective areas for conservation actions in Australia are identified in Chapters 5 and 6. My final chapter serves to synthesise and interpret this research. Through comprehensive analyses, I have shown that cost-effective conservation planning requires the definition of appropriate objectives and tools, and the integration of conservation costs. Further, I have demonstrated accessible approaches that integrate these crucial factors, showing at least a doubling of efficiency in conservation investments. There are cost-effective opportunities for conservation actions in Australia and around the world: this research will assist Governments, Non-Government Organisations, and other conservation-minded people in finding them. Further investment is required in obtaining and wisely applying socio-economic data for conservation planning and in evaluating conservation projects to improve our knowledge base.

Biodiversity is declining globally due to mounting anthropogenic threats. Actions to protect biodiversity against threats can be costly, involving land purchase, invasive species management, and inflicting opportunity costs of lost revenue and livelihoods in conservation areas. Governments and conservation organisations are under increasing pressure to deliver the greatest benefits from conservation funds, and to minimise conflicts between conservation and other human priorities. Most conservation planning approaches are limited in their ability to assist with cost-effective funding allocation decisions. First, approaches often lack quantifiable objectives and appropriate tools. Second, approaches rarely consider economic information, such as spatially explicit data on the costs of conservation actions. In this thesis I address these two limitations, which often co-occur, in spatial conservation planning. Problem definition includes specifying a quantifiable objective, a set of constraints and control variables, and knowledge of the system. A simple conservation objective is to protect target amounts of biodiversity features, such as 15% of the range of each species and vegetation type, over a minimal total reserve area. Here, targets are the constraints and the control variables are the decisions of whether or not to conserve each site. Target-based conservation planning is the dominant spatial prioritisation approach, but has been criticised for failing to protect untargeted portions of biodiversity and for employing targets too low to ensure species persistence. In Chapter 2, I review target-based systematic conservation planning, discovering that many perceived limitations can be overcome with current developments in research and software and better communication, whilst acknowledging the value of alternative approaches. Conservation planning objectives are becoming increasingly complex due to the need to conserve many kinds of features, such as species, habitat types, and ecosystem services. Measures of the spatial congruence between features is often used to determine if one feature is a good surrogate for representing another and whether multiple features can be easily captured in a single plan. In Chapter 3 I review the use of congruence metrics in conservation planning research, explaining the differences between the three most common metrics – spatial correlation, hotspot overlap, incidental representation – and demonstrating why high values in one metric can coincide with low values in another. Most importantly, I show that integrated systematic conservation planning, rather than congruence metrics, is the only way to determine how efficient it will be to protect multiple features in a reserve system. While conservation planning has an implicit goal of cost-efficiency, spatially explicit data on the costs of conservation action are rarely considered. Prioritisation analyses that do not consider conservation costs can lead to the misallocation of funds and high opportunity costs. In Chapter 4 I carry out a global analysis at 1º resolution to identify areas that could protect targets of 10% of every mammal species’ range whilst minimising the opportunity costs of forgone agricultural production. The a priori inclusion of opportunity costs reduced the cost of meeting conservation targets by at least 30%. I then compare cost-effective allocation of funds to actual funding allocation by international conservation agencies in 2006, highlighting globally important, threatened and under-funded regions. While estimates of conservation opportunity costs can increase conservation planning efficiency, there are often various actions under consideration, each with different associated costs. The definition of specific actions, and their respective costs, is rarely considered in conservation planning. In Chapter 5 I develop cost surfaces for two conservation actions in Australia (i) land purchase for reservation estimated by unimproved land values and (ii) stewardship payments to private landholders to conserve biodiversity estimated by forgone agricultural production. I then identify priority areas at a 10 km2 resolution for conserving 15% of the pre-clearing extent of a range of biodiversity features by these actions. I demonstrate that using cost data to reflect specific conservation actions minimises improves financial efficiency by up to two-fold. Cost-effective conservation planning is also hindered by uncertainties in estimates of conservation costs. In Chapter 6 I carry out the first comprehensive sensitivity analysis of conservation priorities to cost value, using the same goal as in Chapter 5, but restricting planning to reservation in Queensland, which is the Australian state with the best quality unimproved land value data. First, I show that sites which are essential or unhelpful for meeting conservation targets maintain a high and low priority status respectively, over a large range of cost data (1-400% of their estimated cost). Medium priority sites are sensitive to estimates of cost, and represent the greatest opportunities to make cost-effective decisions. Next I develop a simple approach for planning with uncertain cost data, where priorities can be updated as real information on the cost of a parcel of land becomes available. This chapter shows that uncertain cost data is useful for conservation planning. Potentially cost-effective areas for conservation actions in Australia are identified in Chapters 5 and 6. My final chapter serves to synthesise and interpret this research. Through comprehensive analyses, I have shown that cost-effective conservation planning requires the definition of appropriate objectives and tools, and the integration of conservation costs. Further, I have demonstrated accessible approaches that integrate these crucial factors, showing at least a doubling of efficiency in conservation investments. There are cost-effective opportunities for conservation actions in Australia and around the world: this research will assist Governments, Non-Government Organisations, and other conservation-minded people in finding them. Further investment is required in obtaining and wisely applying socio-economic data for conservation planning and in evaluating conservation projects to improve our knowledge base.

Biodiversity is declining globally due to mounting anthropogenic threats. Actions to protect biodiversity against threats can be costly, involving land purchase, invasive species management, and inflicting opportunity costs of lost revenue and livelihoods in conservation areas. Governments and conservation organisations are under increasing pressure to deliver the greatest benefits from conservation funds, and to minimise conflicts between conservation and other human priorities. Most conservation planning approaches are limited in their ability to assist with cost-effective funding allocation decisions. First, approaches often lack quantifiable objectives and appropriate tools. Second, approaches rarely consider economic information, such as spatially explicit data on the costs of conservation actions. In this thesis I address these two limitations, which often co-occur, in spatial conservation planning. Problem definition includes specifying a quantifiable objective, a set of constraints and control variables, and knowledge of the system. A simple conservation objective is to protect target amounts of biodiversity features, such as 15% of the range of each species and vegetation type, over a minimal total reserve area. Here, targets are the constraints and the control variables are the decisions of whether or not to conserve each site. Target-based conservation planning is the dominant spatial prioritisation approach, but has been criticised for failing to protect untargeted portions of biodiversity and for employing targets too low to ensure species persistence. In Chapter 2, I review target-based systematic conservation planning, discovering that many perceived limitations can be overcome with current developments in research and software and better communication, whilst acknowledging the value of alternative approaches. Conservation planning objectives are becoming increasingly complex due to the need to conserve many kinds of features, such as species, habitat types, and ecosystem services. Measures of the spatial congruence between features is often used to determine if one feature is a good surrogate for representing another and whether multiple features can be easily captured in a single plan. In Chapter 3 I review the use of congruence metrics in conservation planning research, explaining the differences between the three most common metrics – spatial correlation, hotspot overlap, incidental representation – and demonstrating why high values in one metric can coincide with low values in another. Most importantly, I show that integrated systematic conservation planning, rather than congruence metrics, is the only way to determine how efficient it will be to protect multiple features in a reserve system. While conservation planning has an implicit goal of cost-efficiency, spatially explicit data on the costs of conservation action are rarely considered. Prioritisation analyses that do not consider conservation costs can lead to the misallocation of funds and high opportunity costs. In Chapter 4 I carry out a global analysis at 1º resolution to identify areas that could protect targets of 10% of every mammal species’ range whilst minimising the opportunity costs of forgone agricultural production. The a priori inclusion of opportunity costs reduced the cost of meeting conservation targets by at least 30%. I then compare cost-effective allocation of funds to actual funding allocation by international conservation agencies in 2006, highlighting globally important, threatened and under-funded regions. While estimates of conservation opportunity costs can increase conservation planning efficiency, there are often various actions under consideration, each with different associated costs. The definition of specific actions, and their respective costs, is rarely considered in conservation planning. In Chapter 5 I develop cost surfaces for two conservation actions in Australia (i) land purchase for reservation estimated by unimproved land values and (ii) stewardship payments to private landholders to conserve biodiversity estimated by forgone agricultural production. I then identify priority areas at a 10 km2 resolution for conserving 15% of the pre-clearing extent of a range of biodiversity features by these actions. I demonstrate that using cost data to reflect specific conservation actions minimises improves financial efficiency by up to two-fold. Cost-effective conservation planning is also hindered by uncertainties in estimates of conservation costs. In Chapter 6 I carry out the first comprehensive sensitivity analysis of conservation priorities to cost value, using the same goal as in Chapter 5, but restricting planning to reservation in Queensland, which is the Australian state with the best quality unimproved land value data. First, I show that sites which are essential or unhelpful for meeting conservation targets maintain a high and low priority status respectively, over a large range of cost data (1-400% of their estimated cost). Medium priority sites are sensitive to estimates of cost, and represent the greatest opportunities to make cost-effective decisions. Next I develop a simple approach for planning with uncertain cost data, where priorities can be updated as real information on the cost of a parcel of land becomes available. This chapter shows that uncertain cost data is useful for conservation planning. Potentially cost-effective areas for conservation actions in Australia are identified in Chapters 5 and 6. My final chapter serves to synthesise and interpret this research. Through comprehensive analyses, I have shown that cost-effective conservation planning requires the definition of appropriate objectives and tools, and the integration of conservation costs. Further, I have demonstrated accessible approaches that integrate these crucial factors, showing at least a doubling of efficiency in conservation investments. There are cost-effective opportunities for conservation actions in Australia and around the world: this research will assist Governments, Non-Government Organisations, and other conservation-minded people in finding them. Further investment is required in obtaining and wisely applying socio-economic data for conservation planning and in evaluating conservation projects to improve our knowledge base.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Dragonflies (Insecta: Odonata) are a valuable tool for assessing aquatic systems and have been used as indicators of ecological health, ecological integrity, and environmental change, including climatic change. In four separate studies I explored the usefulness of dragonflies as surrogates in biomonitoring, site prioritization and indication of global climate change. In the use of dragonflies for biomonitoring, I field-tested a freshwater ecological integrity index, the Dragonfly Biotic Index (DBI), based on dragonfly assemblages at the local scale, and compared the DBI to a standard freshwater benthic macroinvertebrate-based freshwater health index. Overall, dragonflies were more sensitive to changes in river condition than were macroinvertebrates, and the DBI site value and macroinvertebrate scores were highly significantly correlated. I conclude that dragonfly assemblages in the form of a DBI are an excellent tool for environmental assessment and monitoring freshwater biodiversity, with the potential to replace benthic macroinvertebrate-based freshwater quality assessments. In the second study, I used the DBI to prioritize sites for conservation action in South Africa. Using a selected set of top prioritized sites, I compared the DBI’s performance to that of a rarity-complementarity algorithm. Site prioritization using the DBI reveals that CFR sites protect Red Listed taxa rather well. The rarity-complementarity algorithm represents all species, but without greater emphasis on the rare and threatened species. I conclude that the DBI is of great value in selecting biodiversity hotspots, while the algorithm is useful for selecting complementarity hotspots. The third study was made possible by the recent completion of a continental assessment of freshwater biodiversity, which revealed that patterns of richness and threat of four well-studied aquatic taxa largely coincide at the continental scale. Using only dragonflies, I built a protected areas network for Africa using spatial planning software. I then compared the performance of the existing African reserve network and that of known global biodiversity hotspots against the model, and identified sites of conservation concern. Although the current reserve network covers 10.7% of the landscape, the proportional representation of species geographic distributions in reserves is only 1.1%. The reserve network is therefore inefficient, and many areas of conservation priority that are not formally protected remain. The advantage of operating at the fine scale, while covering a large geographic area is that it shifts the focus from the large-scale hotspots to smaller priority areas within and beyond hotspots. In the fourth study, I created species distribution models of dragonflies in an El Niño-prone biodiversity hotspot in South Africa, and predicted the changes in species richness, geographic range and habitat suitability, forty and eighty years from now. According to the model results of two different emissions scenarios, at least three species will be lost from the area by 2050, and four by 2080. The remaining species are predicted to persist with reduced geographical ranges, at generally higher elevations. Most species presented here thrive quite well in artificial environments, that is, engineered ponds or dams. It is therefore unlikely that loss in connectivity will play a role for these species. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Naaldekokers (Insecta:Odonata) is waardevolle instrumente om akwatiese sisteme te assesseer, en is al gebruik as aanwysers van ekologiese gesondheid, ekologiese integriteit en omgewingsverandering, insluitend klimaatsverandering. In vier studies het ek die nut van naaldekokers as surrogate in biomonitering, area prioritisering en indikasie van globale klimaatsverandering ondersoek. In die benutting van naaldekokers in biomonitering, het ek ´n varswater ekologiese integriteits indeks, die Dragonfly Biotic Index (DBI), wat gebaseer is op naaldekokergemeenskappe op die plaaslike skaal, getoets en dit vergelyk met ´n standaard bentiese makroinvertebraat-gebaseerde varswater gesondheids index. Naaldekokers was meer sensitief vir veranderinge in riviertoestand as makroinvertebrate, en die DBI lokaliteit waarde en makroinvertebraat telling was beduidend gekorreleer. Die gevolgtrekking was dat naaldekoker gemeenskappe in die vorm van die DBI ‘n uitstekende instrument is vir omgewings assessering en die monitering van varswater biodiversiteit, met die potensiaal om bentiese makroinvertebraat-gebaseerde varswaterkwaliteit assessering te vervang. In die tweede studie, het ek die DBI gebruik om areas te prioritiseer vir bewaringsaksie in Suid Afrika. Met die gebruik van ‘n geselekteerde set top prioriteit areas, het ek die DBI se prestasie vergelyk met die van ‘n rariteit-komplemetariteit algoritme. Area prioritisering met die gebruik van die DBI het aangedui dat CFR areas taxa op die Rooi Lys goed beskerm. Die rariteit-komplementariteit algoritme verteenwoordig alle spesies, maar beklemtoon minder skaars en bedreigde spesies. Die gevolgtrekking was dat die DBI van meer waarde is in die selektering van biodiversiteits ‘hotspots‘, terwyl die algoritme nuttig is vir die selektering van komplementariteits ‘hotspots‘. Die derde studie was moontlik gemaak deur die onlangse voltooiing van ‘n kontinentale assessering van varswater biodiversiteit, wat aangedui het dat patrone van rykheid en bedreiging van vier goed-bestudeerde akwatiese taxa grootliks ooreenstem op die kontinentale skaal. Met die gebruik van naaldekokers, het ek ‘n beskermde area netwerk gebou vir Afrika met ruimtelike beplannings sagteware. Ek het die prestasie van die bestaande Afrika reservaatnetwerk en die van bekende globale biodiversiteit ‘hotspots‘ vergelyk teen die model, en het areas van bewaringsbelang geidentifiseer. Alhoewel die bestaande reservaatnetwerk 10.7% van die landskap dek, is die proporsionele verteenwoordiging van spesies se geografiese verspreiding net 1.1%. Die reservaatnetwerk is dus onvoldoende en baie areas van bewaringsbelang is nie formeel beskerm nie. Die voordeel van op die fyn skaal werk terwyl ‘n groot geografiese are gedek word, is dat dit die fokus van groot skaal ‘hotspots‘ na kleiner prioriteits areas binne en buite ‘hotspots‘ verskuif. In die vierde studie, het ek spesies verspreidingsmodelle van naaldekokers geskep in ‘n El Nino-geneigde biodiversiteits ‘hotspot’ in Suid Afrika, en het veranderinge in spesies rykheid, geografiese verspreiding en habitatsgeskiktheid voorspel, veertig en tagtig jaar van nou af. Volgens die modelresultate van twee verskillende emissie scenarios, sal ten minste drie spesies verlore gaan uit die area teen 2050, en vier teen 2080. Daar word voorspel dat die oorblywende spesies sal voortduur in verkleinde geografiese areas, by groter hoogte bo seespieël. Die meeste spesies hier verteenwoordig floreer in kunsmatige omgewings, soos mensgemaakte damme. Dit is dus onwaarskynlik dat ‘n verlies in konnektiwiteit ‘n rol sal speel vir hierdie spesies.

Municipal water distribution systems are operated and maintained by utilities whose first priority is the safe and reliable provision of drinking water to consumers. The cost to move and treat water through distribution networks is significant and can account for up to 80% of a utility’s energy costs. As these networks age, operating and maintenance costs continue to increase due to higher incidences of leaks and breaks and increased pipe friction leading to higher energy use. Many utilities are considering water conservation as a strategy to reducing their energy consumption by reducing the amount of water being pumped and treated in their jurisdictions. This work studies the pumping energy response of a distribution system when water conservation strategies are implemented in small geographic areas in the network. A water conservation plan is tailored to each defined area by specifying which conservation measures are feasible to implement, desired by the customer, and are attractive to the utility based on a potential return on investment in the form of reduced electricity bills to pump and treat water. Energy intensity and energy elasticity indicators are developed to assess the mechanical energy used in a network to distribute water to end-users. A case study for the City of Kingston water distribution system is presented. The distribution system studied indicated that when water conservation strategies produced marginal water savings, the energy response was inelastic to changes in water demand. The amount of energy required to move one cubic metre of water through the network increased with higher water savings because the percent savings of water was higher than the percent savings of pumping energy. / Thesis (Master, Civil Engineering) -- Queen's University, 2013-05-31 14:20:18.363

My thesis project is to create a conservation plan for the Reservoir Canyon Natural Reserve (RCNR) in San Luis Obispo, California. It is a professional project for the City of San Luis Obispo with the goal of eventual adoption by the City Council. The plan was motivated by City policy, which advises creating conservation plans for open spaces, and by a particular need to address management issues in RCNR that include plant and wildlife conservation, trail access, erosion, electrical utility easements, and other legal matters. The project consists of two main components: the conservation plan and a companion paper. The paper is an overview of the theory and best practices involved in conservation planning, and is meant to be complementary to the conservation plan. Therefore, discussions found in the paper are not present in the plan itself, but instead serve as background. The paper consists primarily of a literature review and my reflections on how the literature applies to the process of planning and managing RCNR. The Draft Reservoir Canyon Natural Reserve Conservation Plan, attached as an appendix, explains the conditions of the reserve, and describes the goals and management strategies the City will employ.

The unique species, ecosystems and landscapes of the Western United States are experiencing unprecedented pressures from climate change, creating new challenges for conservation. As temperatures rise and patterns of precipitation shift, plant and wildlife species have been shifting their ranges to new areas in search of more suitable climates, building groupings of species that are historically unfamiliar. These climate -driven migrations place an additional burden on species that are already threatened from habitat loss and other human-related activities. The impacts of climate change are of particular concern in landscapes that have long been conserved and managed based on the ecological features that define them, including national parks, wildlife refuges, and wilderness areas. With many of these existing protected areas experiencing ecological shifts due to climate change, there is a growing need to identify the places within wider regions that will help species cope with impacts of changing climatic conditions. In some cases, those places are those where the pressures of climate change are least pronounced, what are referred to as “climate refugia.” At other times, helping plants and wildlife cope involves aiding their movement across the landscape in response to climate shifts, by preserving the connectivity between critical habitats and other highly important areas. While many efforts have been made to assess the potential of different areas as climate refugia and corridors, these practices have usually been carried out looking at individual species or ecosystems at a relatively local scale. Unfortunately, many of the decisions to conserve new parts of the landscape occur across much broader regions that span a multitude of species and ecosystems, ranging from individual states to entire continents. As a consequence, assessing climate refugia and corridors on a case-by-case basis for every ecological feature is neither feasible nor an efficient use of the limited resources available for conservation. Additionally, when deciding which areas are best suited for protecting native species and ecosystems from the impacts of climate change, one cannot ignore the existence of the other prevalent threats to conservation, such as habitat loss or invasive species. In this thesis, I have explored methods for widely incorporating climate change into the complex process of identifying high priority areas for conservation across broad regions. As a case study for this work, I chose the Southern Rockies Landscape Conservation Cooperative, a collaborative public and private effort for conserving and managing the ecological characteristics of a distinct region spanning seven states in the US Intermountain West. After broadly measuring climate change impact and connectivity in a manner that was not tied to any particular species, I simulated climate refugia and corridors that simultaneously represented the ranges of 31 separate wildlife species. Though further research is needed to better understand the full suite of threats to species persistence, the means already exist for conservation decision makers to account for climate change in their actions. I believe that my work supports that decision making process, providing a framework for identifying areas that are most critical for aiding diverse species and ecosystems in their responses to the pressures of climate change.

Recently adopted global marine protection targets aim to protect 10-30% of marine habitats within the next 3 to 5 years. However, these targets were adopted without prior assessment of their attainability. Moreover, our ability to monitor progress towards such targets has been constrained by a lack of robust data on marine protected areas (MPAs). In this thesis I present the results of the first explicitly marine-focused, global assessment of MPAs in relation to three global marine protection targets. Approximately 2.35 million km2, equivalent to 0.65% of the world’s oceans, are currently protected, and only 12% of that is ‘no-take’. Over the last two decades, the marine area protected globally has grown at ~5% per year. At this rate, even the most modest target is unlikely to be met for at least several decades. The utility of large-scale conservation targets has been repeatedly questioned, although mainly on ecological grounds. However, if, as is suggested here, their primary role is to motivate behavioural change, then a more serious problem is that they seem to be failing in this regard, too. I explore possible reasons for this and suggest two main problems: firstly, an as yet unmet need to develop a hierarchical system of targets that reflects the multi-scale and pluralistic nature of ecological and political systems; and secondly, feedback mechanisms between political will, perceived attainability, and target formulation which may impede implementation of the targets. Since the adoption of the global targets, no implementation strategy has been developed, which may also impede target attainment. In order to fill this gap, I applied a rarity-complementarity heuristic place prioritisation algorithm (PPA) to a dataset consisting of 1038 global species distributions with 0.5° latitude/longitude resolution, under ten scenarios devised to reflect the global targets. This is the first time that species distribution ranges of marine species have been used in a globally synthetic way, and is by far the largest application of a PPA to date. Global priority areas for protection are identified for each scenario, which may be used to identify where regional-scale protected areas network design efforts might be focused.