MSc., Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, 2011 / Granitoid intrusions are numerous in southwestern Rajasthan and are useful because they can provide geochronological constraints on tectonic activity and geodynamic conditions operating as the time of intrusion, as well as information about deeper crustal sources. The particularly voluminous Neoproterozoic felsic magmatism in the Sirohi region of Rajasthan is of particular interest as it may have implications for supercontinental (Rodinia and Gondwana) geometry. The Mt. Abu granitoid pluton is located between two major felsic suites, the older (~870-800 Ma) Erinpura granite and the younger (~751-771 Ma) Malani Igneous Suite (MIS). The Erinpura granite is syn- to lateorogenic and formed during the Delhi orogeny, while the MIS is classified as alkaline, anorogenic and either rift- or plume-related. This tectonic setting is contentious, as recent authors have proposed formation within an Andean-type arc setting. The Mt. Abu granitoid pluton has been mapped as partly Erinpura (deformed textural variant) and partly younger MIS (undeformed massive pink granite). As the tectonic settings of the two terranes are not compatible, confusion arises as to the classification of the Mt. Abu granitoid pluton. Poorly-constrained Rb-Sr age dating place the age of formation anywhere between 735 ± 15 and 800 ± 50 Ma. The older age is taken as evidence that the Mt. Abu intrusion was either a late phase of the Erinpura granite. However, U-Pb zircon geochronology clearly indicates that the Mt. Abu felsic pluton is not related to- or contiguous with- the Erinpura granite suite. The major results from this study indicate that the all textural variants within the Mt. Abu pluton were formed coevally at ~765 Ma. Samples of massive pink granite, mafic-foliated granite and augen gneiss from the pluton were dated using U-Pb zircon ID-TIMS at 766.0 ± 4.3 Ma, 763.2 ± 2.7 Ma and 767.7 ± 2.3 Ma, respectively. The simple Mt. Abu pluton is considered as an enriched intermediate I- to A-type intrusion. They are not anorogenic A-types, as, although these felsic rocks have high overall alkali and incompatible element enrichment, no phase in the Mt. Abu pluton contains alkali rich amphibole or pyroxene, nor do REE diagrams for the most enriched samples show the gull-wing shape typical of highly evolved alkaline phases. The alkali-enriched magma may be explained by partial melting of a crustal source such as the high-K metaigneous (andesite) one suggested by Roberts & Clemens (1993), not derivation from a mantle-derived mafic magma. The fairly restricted composition of Mt. Abu granitoids suggests that partial melting and a degree of assimilation/mixing may have been the major factors affecting the evolution of this granitoid pluton; fractional crystallization was not the major control on evolution of these granitoids. Revdar Rd. granitoids that are similar in outcrop appearance and petrography to Mt. Abu granitoids also conform to Mt. Abu granitoids geochemically and are classified as part of the Mt. Abu felsic pluton. Mt. Abu samples from this study have a maximum age range of 760.5-770 Ma, placing the Mt. Abu pluton within the time limits of the Malani Igneous Suite (MIS) as well as ~750 Ma granitoids from the Seychelles. Ages of the Sindreth-Punagarh Groups are also similar. These mafic-ultramafic volcanics are thought to be remnants of an ophiolitic mélange within a back-arc basin setting at ~750-770 Ma. The three Indian terranes are spatially and temporally contiguous. The same contiguity in space and time has been demonstrated by robust paleomagnetic data for the Seychelles and MIS. These similarities imply formation within a common geological event, the proposed Andean-type arc (Ashwal et al., 2002) on the western outboard of Rodinia. The implications are that peninsular India did not become a coherent entity until after this Neoproterozoic magmatism; Rodinia was not a static supercontinent that was completely amalgamated by 750 Ma, as subduction was occurring here simultaneous with rifting elsewhere. Pageiv The Mt. Abu pluton has undergone deformation, with much of the pluton having foliated or augen gneiss textures. The timing of some of the deformation, particularly the augen gneiss and shear zone deformation, is thought to have occurred during intrusion. The Mt. Abu and Erinpura granitoids have experienced a common regional metamorphic event, as hornblende (Mt. Abu) and biotite (Erinpura) give 40Ar/39Ar ages of 508.7 ± 4.4 Ma and 515.7 ± 4.5 Ma, respectively. This event may have reactivated older deformatory trends as well. The temperature of resetting of argon in hornblende coincides with temperatures experienced during upper-greenschist to lower-amphibolite facies metamorphism. These late Pan-African ages are the first such ages reported for the Sirohi region and southern part of the Aravalli mountain range. They offer evidence for the extension of Pan-African amalgamation tectonics (evidence from southern India) into NW India. The age of formation of the Erinpura augen gneiss magma is 880.5 ± 2.1 Ma, thus placing the Erinpura granitoids within the age limits of the Delhi orogeny (~900-800 Ma; Bhushan, 1995). Most deformation observed here would have been caused by compression during intrusion. The Erinpura granitoids are S-type granitoids due to their predominantly peraluminous nature, restricted SiO2-content, normative corundum and the presence of Al-rich muscovite and sillimanite in the mode. Weathered argillaceous metasedimentary material may also have been incorporated in this magma, while the presence of inherited cores suggests relatively lower temperatures of formation for these granitoids as compared to the Mt. Abu granitoids. The age of inheritance (1971 ± 23 Ma) in the Erinpura augen gneiss is taken as the age of the source component, which coincides with Aravalli SG formation. The Sumerpur granitoids differ from the Erinpura granitoids in terms of macroscopic and microscopic texture (undeformed, rarely megaporphyritic) but conform geochemically to the Erinpura granitoid characteristics and may thus be related to the Erinpura granitoid suite.The Revdar Rd. granitoids that are similar in macroscopic appearance to Erinpura granitoids also conform geochemically, and may similarly belong to the Erinpura granite suite. A Revdar Rd. mylonite gneiss with the Erinpura granitoids’ geochemical signature was dated at ~841 Ma, which does not conform to the age of the type-locality Erinpura augen gneiss dated here, but later intrusion within the same event cannot be ruled out because of the uncertainty in the age data (~21 Ma). The presence of garnet in one Revdar Rd. (Erinpura-type) sample implies generation of these granitoids at depth and/or entrainment from the source, similar to the S-type Erinpura granitoids. The Ranakpur granitoids differ significantly from both the Erinpura and Mt. Abu intrusives due to their low SiO2-content and steep REE profiles (garnet present in the source magma); they are thought to have been generated under higher pressures from a more primitive source. The deeper pressure of generation is confirmed by the absence of a negative Eu-anomaly. The Ranakpur quartz syenite dated at 848.1 ± 7.1 Ma is younger by ~30 m.y. than the Erinpura augen gneiss. It is within the same time range as numerous other granitoids from this region as well as the Revdar Rd. granitoid dated in this study. The prevalence of 830- 840 Ma ages may indicate that a major tectonic event occurred at this time. The Ranakpur quartz syenite may have been generated near a subduction or collision zone, where thickened crust allows for magma generation at depth. The deeply developed Nb-anomaly in the spider diagram also implies a larger subduction component to the magma. The Swarupganj Rd. monzogranite is interpreted to have formed by high degrees of partial melting from a depleted crustal source and is dissimilar to other granitoids from this study. More sampling, geochemical and geochronological work needs to be done in order to characterize this intrusion. Pagev The Kishengarh nepheline syenite gneiss is situated in the North Delhi Fold Belt and is the oldest sample dated within this study. The deformation in this sample is due to arc- or continental- collision during a Grenvillian-type orogeny related to the amalgamation of the Rodinia supercontinent (and peninsular India), dated by the highly reset zircons at ~990 Ma. This is considered a DARC (deformed alkaline rock and carbonatite) and represents a suture zone (Leelanandam et al., 2006). The primary age of formation of this DARC is older than 1365 ± 99 Ma, which is the age of xenocrystic titanites from the sample. The granitoid rocks from this study area (Sirohi region) range widely in outcrop appearance, petrography and geochemistry. Granitoids from the Sirohi region dated in this study show a range of meaningful ages that represent geological events occurring at ~880 Ma, ~844 Ma, ~817 Ma, ~789 Ma, ~765 Ma and ~511 Ma. Granitoid magmatism (age of formation) in this region is predominantly Neoproterozoic, and the number of events associated with each granitoid intrusion as well as diverse tectonic settings implies a complexity in the South Delhi Fold Belt that is not matched by the conventional and simplified view of a progression from collision and orogeny during Grenvillian times (Rodinia formation), through late orogenic events, to anorogenic, within-plate (rift-related) alkaline magmatism during Rodinia dispersal. Instead, it is envisaged that convergence and subduction during the formation of Rodinia occurred at ~1 Ga (Kishengarh nepheline syenite deformation), with a transition to continental-continental collision at ~880-840 Ma (Erinpura and Ranakpur granitoids). This was then followed by far-field Mt. Abu and MIS magmatism, related to a renewed period of subduction at ~770 Ma. The last deformatory event to affect this region was that associated with the formation of Gondwana in the late Pan-African (~510 Ma).

The continental margin off the coast of Pakistan between the Murray ridge and the Gulf of Cambay has been studied in this work using gravity, magnetic and bathymetric data. Two dimensional gravity and magnetic models based on free-air gravity and residual magnetic data are developed along a north-south profile off the coast of Karachi. The purpose was to interpret the gross crustal structure of the region. A magnetic map has also been developed for the region between latitudes 20°N and 27°N and between longitude 60°E and 70°E. The gravity model extends to a distance of about 1200 km seaward south of Karachi. The seaward end of the gravity model is constrained by seismic refraction data which suggest the presence of typical oceanic crust. The Moho depth at this end of the profile is about 12 km. At the landward end of the profile A-A' the Moho depth is not constrained by seismic data. The gravity model suggests 27 to 17 km as the possible range of the depth of the Moho and a gradual thinning of the crust from land to sea. In addition, the gravity models as interpreted in this study show grabens at the distances of 350 and 450 km along the profile. If the graben-like structures are rift grabens formed during the rifting of India from Africa then transitional crust can be expected to extend to the 500 km mark along the profile A-A'. Two dimensional models for the magnetic data along the profile were also developed. These anomalies can be interpreted as due to oceanic crust or magnetic bodies embedded in transitional crust. The possibility that the observed magnetic anomalies are due to oceanic crust has been studied in detail in this work. The location of the observed magnetic anomalies with respect to marine magnetic anomaly (28) observed earlier on the Indian Ocean floor, were compared to a marine magnetic time scale. To get a reasonable correlation between the observed and theoretical anomalies requires a considerable amount of adjustment in the spreading rate of individual magnetic blocks. Also on the magnetic map the trend of the lineation of these anomalies is perpendicular to the continental margin instead of being parallel to the continental margin as expected for a rifted continental margin. The presence of horst-and-graben structures in the inland region suggests the rifted nature for the continental margin off Karachi than the sheared nature. This indicates that the lineations should be parallel to the margin. But the magnetic lineations are perpendicular to the continental margin and if they are from oceanic crust then they would suggest that the margin is a sheared margin, which contradicts the extensional structures observed inland. This makes it very unlikely that the source of these anomalies is oceanic crust. However, it is quite possible that the magnetic lineations observed in the map were parallel to the continental margin initially but later on the continent rotated clockwise along a fault landward of the magnetic lineation. This rotation is perhaps responsible for making the lineation perpendicular to the continental margin. One objective of this study was to locate the continent-ocean boundary, but with the available amount of data it is not possible to decide on the most appropriate source for the observed magnetic anomalies. Hence it was not possible to decide exactly on the location of continent-ocean boundary. However, on the basis of gravity and magnetic data it can be said that the continent-ocean boundary lies at a distance of 500 km or greater along the profile. / Graduation date: 1992

The overall objective of this study is to address questions concerning the long-term mechanical strength of the lithosphere across the equatorial margin of Brazil. The approach used in this study consists of calculating the frequency response function estimates, also called admittance, using gravity and bathymetry data. These experimental estimates are then compared to theoretical admittance curves for Airy and thin elastic plate models for which estimates on the flexural rigidity or, equivalently, effective elastic thickness may be made. Twelve profiles, each 256 km long, were extracted from gridded gravity and bathymetry data (data sources: project EQUANT, Defense Mapping Agency, National Geophysical Data Center files and GEOS 3/SEASAT altimeter data). Three profiles were specifically used for testing truncation errors introduced by four different data treatment procedures (before Fourier transforming the data) : detrending, applying 10% cosine tapering, mirror imaging and the use of the first derivatives. The method I adopted is similar to the one used by McNutt (1983) and consists of testing how reliably a given admittance estimate can be recovered as a function of the data treatment procedure. A "predicted" gravity anomaly was obtained by convolving each bathymetric profile with a theoretical admittance filter. The edges of this anomaly are then submitted to the same treatment as the corresponding bathymetric profile before Fourier transforming both profiles and calculating admittance. The stability of the long-wavelength admittance estimates, in the presence of noise, was also investigated by introducing Gaussian noise, in the range of -50 to +50 mGals, in the "predicted" gravity signal. The results indicate that relatively unbiased long-wavelength admittance estimates can be obtained by using the first derivative of the data sets. In addition, it is shown that the mirroring technique, used in previous admittance studies across Atlantic-type margins, leads to overestimated admittance values and, therefore, overestimated flexural rigidities. Neither the theoretical curves for the Airy model nor the plate flexure model can explain the experimental admittance estimates. Not only are the experimental admittance estimates higher than the predicted values but they also have a narrower peak than the theoretical curves. This raises the question of the applicability of highly simplified isostatic models for tectonic provinces such as Atlantic-type continental margins. The following reasons may explain the discrepancies between the experimental and theoretical admittance estimates: (1) The abrupt nature of the transition between oceanic and continental crust controlled by the Romanche Fracture Zone - Unlike the eastern North American continental margin which was formed as a result of extensive rifling and pulling apart, the obliquely-rifled equatorial margin of Brazil has undergone a complex tectonic evolutionary process, where additional components such as shear and right-lateral wrenching were present. Therefore, representing the margin as a thin homogeneous elastic plate might be reasonable when the transition is gradual (for which the uniform flexural rigidity assumption seems reasonable) but is probably not a good approximation when it is as abrupt as the equatorial margin of Brazil (2) Presence of subsurface loads - Previous studies have shown that estimates of the average flexural rigidity of continental lithosphere using the admittance approach are biased when subsurface loads are present. In principle, the proximity of the Romanche Fracture Zone and associated volcanism suggest that shallow buried loads, caused by intrusive bodies, might be present in the area. This could partially account for the mismatch between theoretical curves and experimental admittance estimates. (3) "Masked" estimates - The admittance estimates presented here are likely to reflect the combination of two different signals: one related to the compensation of the Barreirinhas/Piaui-Camocim sub-basin which has no topographic/bathymetric expression and the other one related to the topography/bathymetry and its compensation which is of interest in the admittance studies. Since the wavelengths of these signals do not differ by much (around 80-100 km for the basin) it is possible that in the averaging process some overlapping occurs. The combination of these signals could yield anomalous results masking the admittance estimates in the diagnostic waveband. In addition, I present a two-dimensional cross section obtained by forward modelling the gravity anomaly along a profile using the line integral method. The uniform sedimentary infill of the Barreirinhas/Piaui-Camocim basin is enough to account for the gravity low over the inner shelf and no Moho topography is required. A plausible explanation for this "rootless" basin structure is that the lithosphere is capable of supporting the sediment infill load, and thus, has finite flexural rigidity (basin is locally uncompensated). / Graduation date: 1990

We map the regional physiography and surficial lithology (Surficial Geologic Habitat or SGH) over the continental margin of Oregon. This thesis develops, describes, and implements an iterative interpretive method to map seafloor habitat types from disparate geological and geophysical datasets including: bathymetric images, sidescan sonar images, seismic reflection profiles, sediment samples, geologic maps of structure, and observations from submersibles. An indirect technique for the assessment of map accuracy or habitat type misidentification error is also explored and used to derive supplemental maps of varying interpretative confidence, or "quality". The geological and geophysical datasets used to produce the SGH maps of the Oregon margin are by their nature patchy, and form an irregular mosaic of variable data density and quality. Uniform sampling of continental margins does not yet exist, thus these maps are an attempt to glean as much information as possible from the framework of existing data. In any given area the quantity and quality of data available varied considerably, and required a flexible method of interpretation based on this availability. The integrated interpretative GIS techniques are developed to facilitate mapping geologic habitat types over this region of discontinuous and patchy seafloor data. The SGH map and thematic map accuracy assessment support improved habitat-based inventory and assessment methods. They also serve as habitat reference materials for marine resources management and planning activities at local to national scales. SGH and data quality maps are incorporated as thematic layers within a broader habitat geodatabase for west coast groundfish and are directly applied for modeling Essential Fish Habitat (EFH) for these species. / Graduation date: 2004

A quantitative forward model has been developed to investigate the controls on the deposition, erosion, and preservation of passive rift margin stratigraphy. The model includes thermal subsidence, variable absolute sealevel, flexural isostasy, subaerial and submarine deposition on fluvial and marine equilibrium profiles, and the facility to vary sediment supply through time. Results from the quantitative model can be used to reproduce elements of the sequence stratigraphic depositional model. Conducting sensitivity tests demonstrates that variables such as sediment supply and fluvial profile behaviour are likely to be of equal importance to thermal subsidence and eustasy in passive margin stratigraphy. Sensitivity tests with the quantitative model also demonstrate the problems associated with attempting to use a discretised stratigraphic model to investigate unforced cyclicty resulting from complex interactions in stratigraphic systems. Although the model appears capable of producing such unforced cyclical behaviour, this cyclicity is shown to be due to a numerical instability within the model which occurs with certain initial conditions and assumptions. The applicability of the model to observed stratigraphy is tested by comparing specific model output to patterns of stratigraphy from the North American Atlantic margin. The results from this test demonstrate that although the model is in many respects simplistic when compared to the complexities of natural systems, it is nevertheless capable of reproducing some of the basic elements of the observed stratigraphic patterns.

Thesis (Ph.D.) - University of Glasgow, 2007. / Ph.D. thesis submitted to the Department of Geographical and Earth Sciences, Physical Sciences Faculty, University of Glasgow, 2007. Includes bibliographical references. Print version also available.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2007. / Martial Taillefert, Committee Member ; Jay Brandes, Committee Member ; Markus Huettel, Committee Member ; Philip Froelich, Committee Member ; Ellery Ingall, Committee Member ; Richard A. Jahnke, Committee Chair.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Meteorology, 1979. / Vita. / Bibliography: leaves 121-122. / by Hsien Wang Ou. / Ph.D.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 1979. / Microfiche copy available in Archives and Science. / Vita. / Bibliography: leaves 163-184. / by James Albert Austin, Jr. / Ph.D.

Seafloor sedimentary depositional and erosional processes create a record of near and far-field climatic and tectonic signals adjacent to continental margins and within oceanic basins worldwide. In this dissertation I study both modern and paleo-seafloor surface processes at three separate and distinct study sites; Cascadia offshore Oregon, U.S.A., the Eastern North American Margin from south Georgia in the south to Massachusetts in the north, and the Deep Galicia Margin offshore Spain. I have the advantage of using modern geophysical methods and high power computing resources, however the study of seafloor processes at Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory (LDEO) stretches back over ~80 yrs. Specifically I use data collected during a variety of geophysical research cruises spanning the past ~50 yrs.-the majority of which can be directly attributed to seagoing programs managed by LDEO. The modern seafloor is the integrated result of all previous near and far field processes. As such, I look below the seafloor using multi-channel seismic reflection data, which is the result of innumerable soundings stacked together to create an image of the sub-seafloor (paleo) horizons. I map, analyze and interpret the sub-seafloor sedimentary horizons using a variety of both novel and established methods. In turn, I use multi-beam sonar data, which is also the result of innumerable soundings to map, analyze, and interpret the modern seafloor topography (bathymetry). Additionally, I look to the results from academic ocean drilling programs, which can provide information on both the composition and physical properties of sediments. The sediment composition alone can provide important information about both near and far-field processes, however when supplemented with physical properties (e.g., density/porosity) the results become invaluable. In my second chapter, I use a compilation of multi-beam sonar bathymetry data to identify and evaluate 86 seafloor morphological features interpreted to represent large-scale erosional scours not previously recognized on the Astoria Fan offshore Oregon, U.S.A. The Astoria Fan is primarily composed of sediments transported from the margin to the deep ocean during Late Pleistocene interglacial periods. A significant portion of the sediments have been found to be associated with Late Pleistocene outburst flood events attributed to glacial lakes Bonneville and Missoula. The erosional scours provide a record of the flow path of the scouring event(s), which if well understood can provide important information for the study of past earthquakes as the sedimentary record remains intact outside of the erosional force created by the massive flood events. I design and implement a Monte Carlo inversion to calculate the event(s) flow path at each individual scour location, which results in a comprehensive map of Late Pleistocene erosion on the Astoria Fan. The results indicate that at least 4 outburst flood events are recorded by the scour marks. In my third chapter, I build a stratigraphic framework of the Eastern North American margin using a compilation of multi-channel seismic data. Horizon Au is a primary horizon within the stratigraphic framework and is thought to represent a significant margin wide bottom-water erosional event associated with subsidence of the Greenland-Scotland Ridge and opening of Fram Strait in the late Eocene/early Oligocene. A recent study found that the bottom-water was enriched in fossil carbon, leading us to hypothesize that the bottom-water erosion recorded by horizon Au may have been facilitated by chemical weathering of the carbonate sediments. I use sediment isopach(s) to build a margin-wide model of the late Eocene/early Oligocene continental margin in order to estimate the volume of sediments eroded/dissolved during the event marked by horizon Au. The results indicate that ~170,000 km3 of sediments were removed with a carbonate fraction of 42,500 km³, resulting in 1.15e18 mol CaCO₃ going into solution. An influx of this magnitude likely played a role in significant climatic changes identified at the Eocene-Oligocene transition (EOT). In my fourth chapter, I use a combination of 3D multi-channel seismic and multi-beam sonar bathymetry data collected during the Galicia 3D Seismic Experiment in 2013. The Galicia Bank is the largest of many crustal blocks and is located 120 km west of the coast on the Iberian Margin. The crustal blocks have been attributed to the opening of the North Atlantic Ocean in the Late Triassic/Middle Jurassic. The Galicia Bank is the source for the majority of sediments delivered to the Deep Galicia Margin, the focus of this study. I map the seafloor and 5 paleo-seafloor surfaces in order to study controls on sediment delivery provided by the crustal blocks. The results show that the crustal blocks begin as a barrier to and remain a primary control on sediment delivery pathways to the Deep Galicia basin. Additionally, the paleo-seafloor surfaces record morphological structures that can inform us on both near and far field past climatic and tectonic events e.g., the Alpine Orogeny and Pleistocene inter-glacial periods.