Nitrogen (N) use continues to be an important aspect of forage production. Experimentation was conducted to understand the combined effects of N application and harvest regime on three cool-season grasses: orchardgrass, southeastern wildrye, and tall fescue. Tests were established at Starkville and Brooksville, MS, in fall 2013 and 2014, respectively. Plots were fertilized with 0, 134, 202, or 269 kg N ha-1 yr-1 and harvested one, two, three, or four times during the 112-day season. Variables measured included: cumulative dry matter yield, relative forage quality, crude protein percentage, normalized difference vegetation index, nitrogen use efficiency, and persistence. Persistence was only recorded for southeastern wildrye. Species, N application, and harvests were significant in combination with one another (either two or all three) for all variables except persistence. Only harvest frequency was significant for persistence. Further research should be conducted to evaluate cutting height when incorporating N and multiple harvest events.

The southeast United States is prone to severe weather throughout the year. Despite technological advances, some severe weather events occasionally remain unwarned in this part of the country. Past studies examined the relationship between cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning and warm season severe weather episodes. The present study examined the relationship between cool season tornadoes and CG lightning, with a focus over the southeastern United States, where most cool season tornadoes occur. Data from the Storm Prediction Center and National Lightning Detection Network (NLDN) were used to investigate CG lightning properties within 50 km and one hour before tornado touchdown. This was completed over a period of 13 cool seasons from October 1989 through March 2002. Of 3325 tornado events, 2358 contained at least one NLDN-detectable flash. CG lightning attributes of peak current, multiplicity, and flash density compared well with those of prior warm season lightning research. Overall event frequency appeared to be lower than in the warm season. Almost all Central Plains events were accompanied by at least one NLDN-detectable flash. Up to 70% of tornado events near the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic coasts contained no NLDN-detectable lightning. Although it is not known why this trend was observed, it is speculated that NLDN detection efficiency and/or storm structure differences may play a role in these observations. Warm season studies have correlated tornadoes with predominantly positive (>50% positive CG lightning), or PPCG storms. Gridded maps showed the greatest percentage and highest frequency of cool season PPCG storms across Kansas and Nebraska, with up to 70% of events associated with PPCG lightning. A secondary, albeit lower, frequency maximum extended 1° to 2° inland across Louisiana into North Carolina. This study also subjectively defined a storm with “enhanced” positive cloud-to-ground (EPCG) lightning as one containing >25% positive cloud-to-ground lightning, which corresponds to approximately the 75th percentile of all cool season tornadoes. This has lead to speculation that EPCG criterion may be a better indicator of the possibility of severe weather than the traditional PPCG criterion.

Tornado research conducted across the southeastern United States suggests two peak tornado maxima. However, few studies have distinguished between the thermodynamic and shear environments between cool-season and warm-season tornadoes. Incorporating 100 mb mixed layer parcels, mean thermodynamic and shear parameters for non-significant (F0?F1) and significant (F2?F5) tornado environments were calculated. Cool-season tornado environments were characterized by relatively low amounts of instability and high shear. On the other hand, warm-season tornado events were characterized by higher amounts of instability and generally less shear. The Energy Helicity Index (EHI) remained nearly constant suggesting a balance of instability and shear between the tested seasons. During the cool-season, an increase in instability appears to distinguish between tornado strengths. Yet, an increase in shear during the warm-season may be indicative of significant tornado environments.

Understanding the nutrient dynamics of pastures is essential to their profitable and sustainable management.  Tall fescue [Schendonorus phoenix (Scop.) Holub.] is the predominant forage species in Virginia pasturelands.  Although tall fescue pasture is common, little research has attempted to document how soil and herbage nutrient concentrations change through time.  This thesis summarizes two studies conducted within the context of a larger grazing systems project near Steele's Tavern, VA.  The objectives were to: (1) examine temporal changes in plant available soil nutrient concentrations in four grazing systems, (2) determine how hay feeding and use of improved forages affected soil and herbage nutrient concentrations (3) examine the relationship between and variability within soil and herbage nutrient concentrations, (4) analyze the seasonal variation in herbage mineral concentration with regard to beef cattle requirements, and (5) create a statistical model to predict variation in herbage mineral concentration across the growing season.  Analysis of plant and soil nutrients through 5 years of grazing produced several important findings.  Soil pH, P, and Ca, Mg, and B declined through five years of grazing.  Higher concentrations of herbage N and K and soil P, K, Fe, Zn, and Cu were measured in hay feeding paddocks.  Herbage nutrient concentrations showed less variability in P and K than did soil test results.  Fertility testing in pastures is important to monitor changing nutrient concentrations, and this study showed that herbage analysis may provide a more stable and accurate assessment of pasture fertility than soil testing.  Pasture herbage, grown without fertilization, contained sufficient concentrations of macronutrients to meet the requirements of dry beef cows through the growing season and to meet the requirements of lactating beef cows in April.  A model was developed using soil moisture and relative humidity that predicted (R2 = 0.75) variation in herbage mineral concentration throughout the growing season.  As described in this thesis, use of modeling to predict nutrient dynamics in pasture could allow for more efficient mineral supplementation strategies that lead to improved profitability, nutrient retention, and livestock health. / Master of Science

Southeastern wildrye (Elymus glabriflorus (Vasey ex L.H. Dewey) Scrib & C.R. Ball) is a relatively new perennial cool-season grass that has shown potential as a forage crop in the Southeastern United States. However, there is a lack of research on this species assessing its agronomic performance. To assess the agronomic performance and it’s tolerance to imazapic field trials were established in Newton and Starkville, MS. A forage production trial included five nitrogen (N) 0, 56, 112, 168, and 224 kg N ha -1 (high input) and five annual clover (low input) treatments. Tolerance to imazapic was assessed with applications of four pre- and early post-emergent applications applied at 0.0, 0.35, 0.7, 0.105, and 0.14 kg ai ha -1. Results from both field trials combine to validate southeastern wildrye as a potential forage crop and continued research and development of agronomic traits in this species.

Diverse forage mixtures have improved resilience to drought, improved persistence, ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions, reduced fertilizer costs, improved root mass and greater soil carbon sequestration but do they improve forage and animal production. The objective was to determine if complex native forage mixtures provide superior nutritional quality throughout the grazing season as compared to simple native mixtures. Three studies were conducted in 2007 at Swift Current, SK to evaluate forage production potentials, nutritive qualities and in vitro dry matter digestibility of native and tame forage species common to or having potential in Southwestern Saskatchewan. In study one, plots were seeded in 2006 on Chernozemic Orthic Brown Swinton Loam soils and consisted of 11 native and three tame monoculture species common to southwestern Saskatchewan. Clippings at a 5 cm stubble height occurred on June 20 and every 28 days after until October 10. Forage DM production, in vitro OMD, NDF, ADF, ADL, CP, Ca and P concentrations were measured. As species matured, production and OMD declined (P¡Ü0.05) but NDF, ADF and ADL concentrations increased (P¡Ü0.05). There were harvest date by species differences (P¡Ü0.05) in forage production and nutritional qualities of C3 and C4 grass and legume species. Study two examined the in situ CP, NDF and DM disappearance of six selected species harvested in the fall. EDNDF and ADDM values did not differ (P>0.05) among C3 grasses. The C4 grasses had higher (P<0.05) EDNDF and EDDM and the legume, Canadian milkvetch had the highest (P<0.05) EDDM but lowest EDNDF. Study three occurred in 2005, 2006 and 2007 to determine if complex native forage mixtures had superior forage and animal production as compared to simple forage stands. Grazing occurred from June through August to achieve 60% utilization. Animal weights and available, cage and residual forage yields were taken to determine production and utilization. Forage production and quality did not differ (P>0.05) between simple and complex forage mixtures but animal production (AUD ha-1) was higher on complex native mixtures. Overall results showed; 1) C3 and C4 grass and legume species have different growth patterns and qualities that can improve forage quality and degradability of the stand throughout the grazing season, 2) forage and animal production benefits associated with complex native forage mixtures largely depend on environmental conditions like temperature and moisture.

Diverse forage mixtures have improved resilience to drought, improved persistence, ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions, reduced fertilizer costs, improved root mass and greater soil carbon sequestration but do they improve forage and animal production. The objective was to determine if complex native forage mixtures provide superior nutritional quality throughout the grazing season as compared to simple native mixtures. Three studies were conducted in 2007 at Swift Current, SK to evaluate forage production potentials, nutritive qualities and in vitro dry matter digestibility of native and tame forage species common to or having potential in Southwestern Saskatchewan. In study one, plots were seeded in 2006 on Chernozemic Orthic Brown Swinton Loam soils and consisted of 11 native and three tame monoculture species common to southwestern Saskatchewan. Clippings at a 5 cm stubble height occurred on June 20 and every 28 days after until October 10. Forage DM production, in vitro OMD, NDF, ADF, ADL, CP, Ca and P concentrations were measured. As species matured, production and OMD declined (P¡Ü0.05) but NDF, ADF and ADL concentrations increased (P¡Ü0.05). There were harvest date by species differences (P¡Ü0.05) in forage production and nutritional qualities of C3 and C4 grass and legume species. Study two examined the in situ CP, NDF and DM disappearance of six selected species harvested in the fall. EDNDF and ADDM values did not differ (P>0.05) among C3 grasses. The C4 grasses had higher (P<0.05) EDNDF and EDDM and the legume, Canadian milkvetch had the highest (P<0.05) EDDM but lowest EDNDF. Study three occurred in 2005, 2006 and 2007 to determine if complex native forage mixtures had superior forage and animal production as compared to simple forage stands. Grazing occurred from June through August to achieve 60% utilization. Animal weights and available, cage and residual forage yields were taken to determine production and utilization. Forage production and quality did not differ (P>0.05) between simple and complex forage mixtures but animal production (AUD ha-1) was higher on complex native mixtures. Overall results showed; 1) C3 and C4 grass and legume species have different growth patterns and qualities that can improve forage quality and degradability of the stand throughout the grazing season, 2) forage and animal production benefits associated with complex native forage mixtures largely depend on environmental conditions like temperature and moisture.

The objective of this study was to determine dairy cattle preference amongst four species of cool-season forage grasses: eight orchardgrasses (Dactylis glomerata L.), five tall fescues [Schedonorus arundinaceus (Schreb.) Dumort.], five perennial ryegrasses (Lolium perenne L.), and six festuloliums [xFestulolium braunii (K. Richt.) A. Camus.]; 24 cultivars in total. Each grazing trial utilized four Holstein-Friesian heifers over six hours. Maturity differences were eliminated by having animals graze only vegetative material. After six grazing trials (three each in 2014 and 2015), consistent results in animal preference were not found; three of the six trials did show preference (P

Cattlemen in the southeastern United States widely plant annual ryegrass [Lolium perenne L. spp. multiflorum (Lam.) Husnot] (ARG). It is often planted earlier than the recommended window. This exposes juvenile stands to increased pressure from gray leaf spot (Pyricularia oryzae Cavara) (GLS), causing stand loss. This study was designed to screen for resistance to P. oryzae in two ARG genotypes, Vertyl and a heat-tolerant germplasm (HTARG5) with the objective of developing a crossbred population to be improved using restricted, recurrent phenotypic selection. Experiments were conducted from 2021 – 2022. Disease severity (DS) was assessed 3wk after inoculation with P. oryzae. Vertyl had a significantly lower DS in the preliminary screenings compared to the other genotypes. In experiments 3 and 4, mean DS of Vertyl, HTARG5, and Marshall was not significantly different. These results confirm Vertyl has greater resistance to GLS than HTARG5 and can be a candidate for disease resistance breeding.

Buffalograss [Buchloe dactyloides (Nutt.) Engelm.] is a warm season, perennial grass native to the Great Plains from southern Canada to Mexico (Beetle, 1950). This newly developed, low input, turf-type grass is recommended for use on low maintenance sites (Falkenberg-Borland and Butler, 1982; Pozarnsky, 1983; Wu and Harivandi, 1989; Shearman et al., 2005). Recently, the use of buffalograss as a turfgrass has increased due to its drought tolerance, low nutrient requirements, and low growing height (Harivandi and Wu, 1995; Frank et al., 2004). It is an excellent choice in California where water use is limited. Unsightly winter dormancy of buffalograss can be overcome by growing mixtures of buffalograss and fine fescue (Festuca spp.). Overtime species composition can be overtaken by the fine fescue, unintentionally converting the mixed turfgrass stand to a fine fescue monostand (Severmutlu, et al., 2005). Research on buffalograss establishment in fine leaved fescues from seed or by vegetative methods was completed from 2007 to 2009 at the California Polytechnic State University Horticulture Unit in San Luis Obispo, California. Comparisons were made between mixtures of eight cultivars of buffalograss (Prairie, Prestige, UC Verde, 609, Bowie, Cody, Texoka, and Bison) and three fine leaved fescue species [hard fescue (Festuca trachyphylla Thuill.), sheep fescue (Festuca ovina L), and red fescue (Festuca rubra L.)] to determine which combination and establishment strategy provides the highest quality turf for the California central coast region. Evaluations made on buffalograss establishment and competitive ability when grown in pre-existing fine fescue turfgrasses showed seeded cultivars (Bowie, Cody, Texoka, and Bison) were unsuccessfully established (zero percent coverage in two growing seasons), and vegetative cultivar (Prairie, Prestige, 609 and UC Verde) establishment was greatly dependent on the type of cultivar planted. After two growing seasons, buffalograss cultivar UC Verde had the highest establishment rate (38.6 percent living ground cover) and Prestige had the lowest (11.4 percent living ground cover). Results from this study do not recommend establishing seeded buffalograss cultivars into pre-existing fine leaved fescue turfgrass stands. Vegetative buffalograss cultivars can be established into pre-existing fine leaved fescue turfgrass stands; however, this process is too slow for most turfgrass practitioners and is quite unsightly in winter dormancy during the establishment process.