Coral reef ecosystems are the most diverse on earth, and their subsistence is being threatened by natural and adverse anthropogenic patterns and processes. In an effort to understand and protect these marine environments, several programs have outlined strategies and initiatives. For example, the United States Coral Reef Task Force���s Mapping and Information Working Group has outlined a specific goal to map all coral reefs below 30 m depth by 2009. This study contributes to achieving that goal for three sites around the island of Tutuila, American Samoa, lying in the heart of the South Pacific. American Samoa, a U.S. territory, is home to the Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary, the smallest and most remote in the United States, and to the National Park of American Samoa. Extensive modern scientific surveys were implemented around the territory in 2001 and have since continued and increased. The presence of protected areas and the existence of scientific data collected with state of the art technology have made the site a priority for the Coral Reef Task Force. In this study, methods for classifying surficial seafloor characteristics as bathymetric position index (BPI) zones and structures were developed and applied to the study sites. BPI zones and structures were classified by using algorithms that combine high-resolution (1 m) multibeam bathymetry and its derivatives: bathymetric position index at multiple scales and slope. The development of algorithms and the classification scheme involved the use of historical and current classification studies and three-dimensional visualization. In addition, the BPI zones and structures were compared to limited biological, geological, and physical attributes recorded during accuracy assessment surveys (photos) and towed diver surveys (video). A rugosity (surface ratio) analysis was added to the study to give a picture of the seafloor roughness. The BPI zone and structure classifications overlap and extend existing classifications from Ikonos satellite imagery for water depths shallower than 30 m. Methods, data and classifications developed and applied in this study will be available to the public as a benthic habitat mapping tool (ArcGIS extension), in an online GIS data archive, and on a compact disc attached to this thesis. They contribute to a broader understanding of the marine and coastal environment and will serve as a baseline of information for benthic habitat mapping and future biological, ecological, and geological surveys. The baseline gives a good indication of characteristics that may indicate areas of high biodiversity. The final maps presented here are especially useful to managers, researchers and scientists that seek to establish and monitor a wider and more effective network of marine and coastal protection. / Graduation date: 2005

Title from PDF of title page. / Document formatted into pages; contains 112 pages. / Thesis (M.S.)--University of South Florida, 2003. / Includes bibliographical references. / Text (Electronic thesis) in PDF format. / ABSTRACT: The Florida Keys Coral Reef Monitoring Project (CRMP) began video transect sampling in 1996 and has continuously monitored 107 Florida Keys stations through 2002. The video was downward pointing and produced images from which planar projection data were calculated to determine percent cover of living benthic organisms. An absence of data assessing correlation between octocoral percent cover and octocoral abundance motivated a study to compare octocoral percent cover with abundance data acquired from the same video transects. The methods employed to extract octocoral abundance data from videotape were validated. Temporal changes in octocoral abundance, size and taxonomic group were determined by examination of video transects of 28 randomly selected stations from 1996, 1998, 1999, and 2002. Size classes were defined as [10cm, 10-40cm, ]40cm (short, medium and tall respectively). / ABSTRACT: Taxonomic groups were Gorgonia ventalina and "other octocorals" in three size classes, and Scleraxonia. An in situ study assessed the accuracy of video-derived counts. Average densities of G. ventalina and Scleraxonia were consistently about one colony/m2. Other octocoral as a group averaged 7-9 colonies/m2. When summarized by height, short and tall averaged about 1-2 colonies/m2, while colonies between 10 and 40 cm in height consistently averaged about 6 colonies/m2. Hurricane Georges, in September 1998, impacted the octocoral assemblage. Abundance declined most at stations near the storm center and stations in shallower water. Storm impact was related to octocoral height. Tall octocorals were removed more frequently than medium, short and encrusting forms. A dramatic increase of short individuals in 2002 is indicative of successful post-hurricane recruitment. By 2002, octocoral abundance had recovered to pre-hurricane levels. / ABSTRACT: This study demonstrated that abundance data can reliably be derived from archived video data, reinforcing the value of standardized video data archives. Octocoral abundance and octocoral percent cover are not strongly correlated because tall individuals disproportionately influence percent cover estimates. Nevertheless, trends in octocoral percent cover are reliable indicators of the trends in octocoral abundance. / System requirements: World Wide Web browser and PDF reader. / Mode of access: World Wide Web.

This geostrophic current-controlled Zululand/Natal shelf displays a unique assemblage of interesting physical, sedimentological and biological phenomena. The shelf in this area is extremely narrow compared to the global average of 75km, and is characterised by submarine canyons, coral reefs, and steep gradients on the continental slope. A shelf break occurs 2.1km to 4.1km offshore and the shelf can be divided into a northern region and a southern region based on the presence or absence of a defined shelf break. The southern shelf has a poorly-defined shelf break whilst the northern shelf has a well-defined break at -65m. The poor definition of the shelf break on the southern shelf can possibly be attributed to the presence of giant, climbing sand dunes offshore of Jesser Point at depths of -37m to -60m. The northern shelf has a series of coast-parallel oriented patch coral reefs which have colonised carbonate-cemented, coastal-facies sequences. The northern shelf can be divided into three distinct zones: inner-, mid-, and outer-shelf zones. The inner-shelf is defined as the area landward of the general coral reef trend, with depths varying from 0m to -I5m and having an average gradient of 1.1. The mid-shelf is defined by the general coral reef trend, varying from -9m over the shallow central axis of the reefs to -35m along the deep reef-front environments. The outer-shelf is seaward of the coral reefs and occurs at a depth range of -35m to - 65m. Gradients vary from 1° in the south to 2.5° in the northern part of the study area, and are steep compared to world average shelf gradient of 0.116°. Four submarine canyons occur in the study area and are classified as mature- or youthful-phase canyons depending on the degree to which they breach the shelf. The origin of these canyons is not related to the position of modern river mouths but can probably be linked to palaeo-outlets of the Pongola and Mkuze River systems. It is suggested that the canyons are mass-wasting features which were exploited by palaeo-drainage during regressions. The youthful-phase canyons appear to be mass-wasting features associated with an unstable, rapidly-deposited, progradational late Pliocene sequence and a steep upper continental slope. The mature-phase canyons were probably initiated by mass-wasting but have advanced shoreward, breaching the shelf, due to their link with the palaeo-outlets of the Pongola and Mkuze Rivers during late Pleistocene regressions. Evidence of modem canyon growth has been noted on numerous SCUBA diving surveys carried out on the canyon heads. These take the form of minor wall slumps and small-scale debris flows. The canyons are also supplied with large quantities of sand in the form of large-scale shelf subaqueous dunes generated and transported by the Agulhas Current. As these bedforms meet the canyons the sediment cascades down the canyon thalweg and causes erosion and downcutting of the canyon walls and floor thereby increasing the canyon dimensions. Late Pleistocene beachrock and aeolianite outcrops with or without an Indo-Pacific coral reef veneer are the dominant consolidated lithology on the shelf. These submerged, coast-parallel, carbonate cemented, coastal facies extend semi-continuously from -5m to -95m, and delineate late Pleistocene palaeocoastline events. The rock fabric of these high primary porosity lithologies shows grains floating in a carbonate cement with occasional point-contacts. Grains are mostly quartz (80-90%), minor K-feldspar and plagioclase (5-10%), and various lithic fragments. The rocks contain conspicuous organic grains including foraminifera, bivalve, echinoid, bryozoan, red algal, and occasional sponge spicule fragments; these commonly display replacement fabrics or iron-stained rims. The dominant sedimentary structures found in these sandstone outcrops include high-angle planar cross-bedding and primary depositional dip bedding. Palaeocurrent directions sngest a palaeoenvironment dominated by a combination of longitudinal and transverse dunes with wind directions similar to those observed forming the modem dune systems. Erosional features evident on the submerged beachrocks and aeolianites include gullies trending in two different directions and sea-level planation surfaces with or without the presence of potholes. The unconsolidated sediment on the shelf is either shelf sand, composed mainly of terrigenous quartz grains; or bioclastic sediment which is partially derived from biogenic sources. The quartzose sand from the inner-shelf is generally fine-grained, moderately- to well-sorted, and coarsely- to near symmetrically-skewed. Carbonate content is low, and varies between 4-13%. Quartzose sand from the outer-shelf is fine-grained, moderately- to well-sorted, and coarsely- to very coarsely-skewed. The inner-shelf quartzose sand is better sorted than the outer-shelf sand due to increased reworking of this sediment by the high-energy swell regime. Sediment from the shallower areas of the outer-shelf (< -50m) is better sorted than sediment from depths of greater than -50m. Generally wave-reworking of quartzose shelf sand from the Sodwana Bay shelf results in greater sediment maturity than that observed from geostrophic current effects or a combination of geostrophic and wave-reworking. This sediment was derived by reworking of aeolian and beach sediments, deposited on the shelf during the period leading up to the Last Glacial Maximum (15 000 - 18 000 years B.P.) when sea-level was -130m, during the Holocene (Flandrian) transgression. Bioclastic sediment on the Sodwana Bay shelf is defined as having a CaC03 content of greater than 20% and is a mixture of biogeoically-derived debris and quartzose sand. The distribution of bioclastic sediment in the study area is widespread, with reef-derived and outer-shelf-derived populations being evident. This sediment consists of skeletal detritus originating from the mechanical and biological destruction of carbonate-secreting organisms such as molluscs, foraminifera, alcyonaria, scleractinia, cirripedia, echinodermata, bryozoa, porifera. The reef-derived bioclastic population is confined to depths less than -40m in close proximity to reef areas, whereas the shelf-derived bioclastic population occurs at depths greater than -40m and is derived from carbonate-producing organisms on deep water reefs and soft-substrate environments on the shelf. Large-scale subaqueous dunes form in the unconsolidated sediment on the outer-shelf due to the Agulhas flow acting as a sediment conveyor. These dunes are a common feature on the Sodwana Bay shelf occurring as two distinct fields at depths of -35m to -70m, the major sediment transport direction being towards the south. The two dune fields, the inner- and outer subaqueous dune fields, are physically divided by Late Pleistocene beachrock and aeolianites ledges. A bedform hierarchy has been recognised. The larger, outer dune field appears to have originated as a system of climbing bedforms with three generations of bedforms being superimposed to form a giant bedform, while the inner dune field has a less complex construction. The largest bedforms are those of the outer dune field off Jesser Point, being up to 12 m high, 4 km long and 1.2 km wide. A major slip face, with a slope of 8° is present. Bedload parting zones exist where the bedform migration direction changes from south to north. Three bedload parting zones occur in the study area at depths of -60m, -47m and -45m; two in the inner dune field and one in the outer dune field. These zones are invariably located at the southern limits of large clockwise eddy systems. Such eddies appear to be the result of topographically induced vorticity changes in the geostrophic flow and/or the response to atmospheric forcing caused by coastal low-pressure system moving up the coastline. It has been demonstrated that the inner subaqueous dune sediment conveyor is not active all the time but only during periods . of increased current strength when the Agulhas Current meanders inshore. The smaller bedforms in the outer dune field undergo continuous transport due to the current velocity on the shelf edge outer dune field being higher than the velocity experienced on the inner dune field. The very large 2·D dune which forms the outer dune field is probably not active at present: this is inferred due to the shallow angle of the mega-crest lee slope (8°). The very large Sodwana Bay subaqueous dune fields may be compared with the very large, reconstructed, subaqueous dunes which occur in Lower Permian sediments of the Vryheid Formation, northern Natal. These Permian dunes are represented, in section, as a fine- to medium-grained distal facies sandstone with giant crossbeds. These large-scale bedforms are unidirectional, but rare directionally-reversed, climbing bedforms do occur, this directional reversal may be related to bedload parting zones. On the evidence presented in this thesis, it is proposed that these Permian subaqueous dunes may be ancient analogues of the modem subaqueous dune field on the Sodwana Bay shelf. Positive-relief hummocks and negative-relief swale structures are fairly common in the fine-grained, quartzose shelf sand at depths of -30m to -60m. These appear to be transitional bedforms related to the reworking by storms of medium 2-D subaqueous dunes. These hummocky structures may be the modem equivalent of hummocky cross-stratification noted in the geological record, and if so, they are probably the first to have ever been observed underwater. The occurrences of ladderback ripples on the Sodwana Bay shelf at depths of -4m to -17m, suggest that subtidal ladderback ripples may be more common than previously thought. Ladderback ripples are common features of tidal flats and beaches where they form by late-stage emergence run-off during the ebb tide. They are generally considered diagnostic of clastic intertidal environments. The mode of formation on the Sodwana Bay shelf is different from the classic late-stage emergence run-off model of intertidal occurrences, being a subtidal setting. Subaqueous observations indicate that ladderback ripples are not environment-specific, and that additional evidence of emergence is therefore necessary to support an intertidal setting in the rock record: ladderback ripples alone are insufficient to prove an intertidal environment. The coral patch reefs of the northern Natal coast are unique, being the most southerly reefs in Africa, and totally unspoilt. The Zululand reefs are formed by a thin veneer of Indo-Pacific type corals which have colonised submerged, late Pleistocene beachrocks and aeolianites. Two-Mile Reef at Sodwana Bay has been used to develop a physiograpbic and biological zoning model for Zululand coral reefs, which has been applied to other reefs in the region. Eight distinct zones can be recognised and differentiated on the basis of physiographic and biological characteristics. The reef fauna is dominated by an abundance of alcyonarian (soft) corals, which constitute 60-70% of the total coral fauna. The Two-Mile Reef zoning model has been successfully applied to larger reefs such as Red Sands Reef, and smaller patch reefs (Four-Mile and Seven-Mile Reefs) in the same general area. In this thesis extensive use has been made of Hutton's uniformitarian principles. Hutton's doctrine is particularly relevant to the study of depositional processes and relict shorelines. Coastal processes and weather patterns during the late Pleistocene were broadly similar to modem conditions enabling direct comparisons to be made. A computer-aided facies analysis model has been developed based on textural statistics and compositional features of carbonate-cemented coastal sandstones. Many attempts have been made to distinguish different ancient sedimentary depositional environments, most workers in this field having little success. The new method of facies reconstruction is based on: (1) underwater observations of sedimentary structures and general reef morphology; (2) a petrographic study of the reef-base enabling flve facies: aeolianite, backbeach, forebeach, swash, and welded bar facies to be recognised, which control the geomorphology of Two-Mile Reef; (3) cluster and discriminant analysis comparing graphic settling statistics of acid-leached reef-base samples with those of modem unconsolidated dune/beach environments. The results of this analysis demonstrated that the beachrocks and aeolianites on the shelf formed during a regression and that late Pleistocene coastal facies are similar to modem northern Zululand coastal environments, which have been differentiated into aeolian, backbeach, forebeach, swash, & welded bar. A late Pleistocene and Holocene history of the shelf shows that during the late Pleistocene, post Eemian regressions resulted in deposition and cementation of coast-parallel beachrocks and aeolianites, which define a series of four distinct palaeocoastline episodes with possible ages between 117 000 and 22 000 years B.P. The beachrock/aeolianites formed on the shelf during stillstands and slow regressions, and the gaps between these strandline episodes represent periods of accelerated sealevel regression or a minor transgressive phase which hindered deposition and cementation. The formation of these lithologies generated a considerable sediment sink in the nearshore zone. This reduced sediment supply and grain transport in the littoral zone during the Holocene, and probably enhanced landward movement of the shoreline during the Flandrian transgression. Prior to the Last Glacial Maximum, the beachrock/aeolianite sedimentary sequence was emergent and blanketed by shifting aeolian sands. The Pongola River, which flowed into Lake Sibaya, reworked the unconsolidated sediments on the shelf, and exploited the route of least resistance: along White Sands and Wright Canyon axes. The erosion resulting from fluvial denudation in Wright Canyon has caused this canyon to erode some of the beachrock/aeolianite outcrops which form palaeocoastline episode 2 and entrench the canyon to a deeper level; this eroded the shelf to a distance of 2km offshore. During the Flandrian transgression the unconsolidated sediment cover was eroded, exposing and submerging the beachrock/aeolianite sequence. Flandrian stillstands caused erosional features such as wave-planed terraces, potholes, and gullies to be incised into beachrock and aeolianite outcrops; these are seen at present depths of -47m, -32m, .26m, -22m, -17m to -15m, and -12m. High energy sediment transfers, in an onshore direction, resulted in the deposition of sand bars across the outlet of Lake Slbaya's estuary and the development of a 130m + coastal dune barrier on a pre-existlng, remnant Plelstocene dune stub. Sea-level stabilised at its present level 7 000-6 000 years B.P. and coral reef growth on the beachrock/aeolianite outcrops probably started at 5 000 years B.P. A minimum age for the formation of the northern Zululand coral reefs has been established at 3780 ± 60 years B.P. A mid Holocene transgression relating to the Climatic Optimum deposited a + 2m raised beach rock sequence. This transgression eroded the coastal dune barrier and caused a landward shoreline translation of approximately 40m. A minor transgression such as this can be used as a model for coastal erosion which will result from the predicted 1.5m rise in sea-level over the next century. This rise in sea-level could result in a 30m landward coastline translation of the present coastline, ignoring the influence that storms and cyclones will have on the coastline configuration. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1991.

Coral recruitment is a key process that contributes to the community structure and resilience of coral reefs. As such, quantification of this process is important to assist with the management of these threatened ecosystems. While coral recruitment has been the focus of numerous studies over the past 30 years, an understanding of this process on the high-latitude reefs of South Africa is limited. In addition, variations in methods used in recruitment studies make the results difficult to compare. A rapid in-situ method for universal application in the detection of early post-settled recruits would thus be useful. In this study, scleractinian coral recruitment was investigated at three study sites on Two-mile Reef, over two six-month sampling periods, covering summer and winter. Two components were investigated by attaching settlement tiles consisting of ceramic and marble tiles, and ceramic tiles conditioned with crustose coralline algae (CCA) onto the reef in a spatially structured experimental design. Firstly, coral recruitment was compared on the three different tile surfaces and fluorescence photography was investigated as a rapid in situ technique to detect early post-settled recruits. Fluorescence photography was then used to compare recruitment on tiles with the surrounding natural substrata. Secondly, the spatial and temporal variation in the abundance, composition and size of recruits was investigated. Additionally, the percentage cover of biota surrounding each recruit within three millimeters of its corallum was visually estimated to quantify the microhabitat surroundings of coral recruits. Overall recruitment on the three tile types differed, yet spatial variation in coral recruitment, regardless of tile surface, accounted for most of the variance in recruitment. While the highest recruitment occurred on CCA tiles, this was not significantly greater than ceramic tiles, indicating that the conditioning of ceramic tiles with Mesophyllum funafutiense CCA did not enhance coral settlement in this study. Although many recruits were not detected with fluorescent photography (73%), it proved useful to reveal recruits as small as 0.75 mm in corallum diameter, and indicated that recruitment on the tiles and natural substratum differ significantly. Spatially, the abundance and composition of coral recruits differed between study sites, within sites, and predominantly occurred on tile edges. Coral recruitment was lowest at shallower sites, and was dominated by pocilloporids regardless of study site. Additionally, the abundance and composition of recruits differed between the two sampling periods, with a 6.6-fold decrease in the mean abundance of recruits from summer to winter, with only pocilloporid settlement occurring in the latter season. The majority of recruits were <3 mm, and their microhabitat was dominated by bare substrata and crustose coralline algae. The results suggest that, while the choice of artificial settlement surface used in such studies can have a profound influence on the results, spatial variation in recruitment can be greater. The recovery of scleractinian coral taxa on Two-mile Reef in the event of a severe disturbance is expected to differ, with greatest recovery in areas of high levels of recruitment. The microhabitat surrounding recruits is described here for the first time, suggesting that further research into coral-crustose coralline algae interactions is warranted. Finally, while fluorescence photography has its limitations, it shows promise as a useful tool for rapid qualitative, but not quantitative, assessment of recruitment. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2011.

The development of coral reefs is largely restricted to areas within the tropics where favourable conditions for both coral and reef growth prevail. There is, however, a continuum from these typical, accretive reefs in the tropics to marginal, non-accretive, coral-dominated reef communities which occur at higher latitudes. High-latitude reefs function similarly in many regards to their tropical counterparts and are regulated by similar processes to a varying degree. In this study, the major biological and physico-chemical processes were assessed which directly or indirectly prevent the continued persistence of reefal frameworks and thus hinder reef accretion on high-latitude reefs in the iSimangaliso Wetland Park. These reefs have a high diversity of hard and soft corals with significant reef coverage, yet little evidence of any biogenic accretion has been observed. The scleractinian coral, Acropora austera, is one of the few corals which may be responsible for reef framework production. It exhibits a gregarious growth pattern, forming large, monospecific stands with an interlocking framework characteristic of the early stages of reef accretion. The framebuilding potential of A. austera and the continued persistence of such frameworks were thus determined by in situ monitoring of coral growth, mortality, bioerosion and several physico-chemical parameters. Growth rate and mortality of A. austera branches were measured at three sites of differing stand size and apparent age. This was achieved by repeated image analysis and by staining branches with the vital stain, Alizarin Red S. Both measures of growth yielded a similar linear extension rate of 24.5 mm/yr (n = 467), comparable to related species at similar latitudes. Mean branch mortality was as high as 50%, with clear differences manifested between each A. austera stand. Branch extension rates and branch mortality were inversely related between sites. Small, young stands exhibited significantly faster coral growth rates, lower mortality and a net increase in overall branch length over the study period, whilst the opposite was true of larger, more developed stands. In addition, bioerosion was determined at each site to assess its potential for carbonate removal and its destabilizing effect on reef frameworks. Bioerosion intensity was recorded as “percentage area damage” within cross-sections and “frequency of occurrence” of bioeroding organisms in coral rubble fragments (n = 120). The level of bioerosion was found to be substantial (up to 11.5% loss in weight of coral fragments over the 12-month study period) and was found to decrease significantly with a reduction in size of each A. austera stand. Aragonite saturation state is considered a major factor that limits the geographical range of coral reefs globally. Although previously thought to be limiting in Maputaland, mean ΩArag values of 4.40±0.29 were measured on the reefs in summer and 4.33±0.21 in winter and thus would not have limited reef development. Past studies have noted the turbulence on South African east coast reefs and its adverse effect on reef development. This was corroborated in this study with the measurement of considerable sediment re-suspension (0.17 g cm⁻² day⁻¹) and regular damage to both living coral and the reef framework caused by large swells. These results lead to the theory that Acropora austera stands senesce with increasing size and age. Although large coral frameworks are found on the Maputaland reefs, they do not persist in the long term. High rates of sediment re-suspension prevent infilling of the interstitial spaces and eventual cementation, while high levels of bioerosion lead to framework instability over time. Rough seas further hamper accretion by physical removal of both living coral and the coral-derived framework, thus removing recent growth. This process is suspected to cause an imbalance in the carbonate budget of these marginal reefs, ultimately favoring carbonate removal over carbonate deposition. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2011.

Parrotfish are a critical component of the herbivore functional group on tropical coral reefs around the world because they mediate competition that occurs between algae and scleractinian corals. Also, because of their feeding technique, which consists of rasping at the substratum with their beak-like teeth, they play an important role in carbonate turnover and the clearing of reef surface area for the settlement of new sessile organisms. Because of these roles, parrotfishes are an important structuring component of coral reef communities. However, individual species can play different roles depending on their physiology, behaviour and ecology. Despite the possible ecological differences that may exist amongst species, specific roles of the fishes remain unclear as the group is most often studied at higher community levels. This thesis applied stable isotope analysis to differing levels of organisation within a parrotfish community to help elucidate their trophic ecology on coral reefs in Zanzibar. Firstly, blood and muscle tissues were compared to identify differences in their isotope signatures. In other organisms, blood turns over faster than muscle tissue so that muscle tissue represents the diet as integrated over a longer period of time. In most species of parrotfish the blood and muscle δ¹³C signatures were not found to be significantly different, but the δ¹⁵N signatures were significantly different between tissues. This indicated that the δ¹³C signature of both tissues would reveal similar dietary information. Conversely, differences in the δ¹⁵N signature indicated that the nitrogen relationship between tissues was more complicated. Secondly, spatial variability in parrotfish, coral, detritus and macroalgae isotope signatures was assessed at different scales. In macroalgae and coral tissues (zooxanthellae and polyp treated separately), the δ¹³C signatures were shown to differ with depth, presumably because of changes in photosynthetic processes related to depth-associated changes in light. While δ¹⁵N signatures were not affected by depth, all organisms showed enrichment at the Nyange reef, the closest reef to the capital of Zanzibar, Stone Town, presumably reflecting the effects of sewage outfall. These results show that processes that impact the δ¹⁵N signatures of primary producers (macroalgae and zooxanthellae) can be traced to higher trophic levels (coral polyps and fish). Lastly, δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N signatures were used to identify ontogenetic dietary changes in multiple species of parrotfish. Four of the species showed stages that varied from the diets that are normally assumed on the basis of their dentition and feeding technique. This indicates that functional roles based on taxonomy or morphology may fail to include possible ontogenetic dietary changes, and may also fail to elucidate the full impact a species could have on coral reef communities. The conclusions from these studies indicate that the species-specific ecological role of parrotfish in coral reef communities can be complex within and between species, and may differ amongst reefs. In light of the natural and anthropogenic pressures that affect coral reef systems, management decisions based on a more complete understanding of the role of these fish in coral reef communities will help decisions that maintain resilience in these fragile systems.

Depuis le début de la période industrielle, les activités humaines ont généré une augmentation importante de la concentration atmosphérique en CO2. Une partie de ce CO2 s’accumule dans l’atmosphère, entraînant une augmentation de l’effet de serre naturel et de la température à la surface du globe. Ce processus est plus connu sous le terme réchauffement climatique ou global. De plus, environ 25 % du CO2 produit sont absorbés par les océans. La dissolution du CO2 dans l’eau de mer, entraîne une augmentation de la concentration en protons et en ions bicarbonates (HCO3-) et une diminution de la concentration en ions carbonates (CO32-). Il en résulte une diminution du pH et du taux de saturation de l’eau de mer vis-à-vis du carbonate de calcium. L’ensemble de ces processus est appelé acidification des océans (AO). Le pH des eaux de surface océaniques a déjà diminué de 0,1 unité depuis le début de l’ère industrielle. Ce phénomène devrait s’intensifier au cours du siècle. Selon les prévisions moyennes d’émissions futures de gaz à effet de serre de l’IPCC, la température moyenne des eaux de surface devrait augmenter de 2 à 4 °C et son pH devrait diminuer de 0,3 à 0,4 unité d’ici 2100.<p>Au cours des deux dernières décennies, de nombreuses études ont mis en évidence l’impact négatif de l’AO sur les organismes marins. Les premières études ont été menées principalement en milieu artificiel et ont mis en évidence des conséquences majeures sur la physiologie des organismes, principalement au niveau individuel. Cependant, les dernières études menées dans le domaine ont souligné l'importance de mettre en place des expériences à long terme, à l'échelle de l'écosystème, et dans des conditions plus proches du milieu naturel. Ce type d’étude permet de prendre en compte les interactions écosystémiques et les processus d’acclimatation afin de mieux prévoir les effets directs mais aussi indirects de la diminution du pH dans les océans. <p>L’existence des récifs coralliens tropicaux dépend de la vitesse de formation du socle récifal qui les façonnent (principalement via la calcification des coraux hermatypiques) qui doit rester supérieure à sa (bio)érosion. D’une part, plusieurs études ont montré que le taux de calcification des coraux hermatypiques diminue lorsque la pCO2 augmente. D’autre part, les oursins sont d’importants bioérodeurs des récifs et contribuent donc à la perte de masse calcaire récifale. Cependant, les oursins empêchent également, par leur broutage, le recouvrement des coraux par les algues favorisées par l’AO. Dès lors l’effet de l’élévation de la pCO2 sur les oursins et leur capacité bioérosive peut être déterminant pour l'avenir des récifs coralliens tropicaux au cours du siècle, particulièrement ceux où la densité de ces bioérodeurs est importante. Une telle prédiction est d’autant plus complexe si l’on prend en compte la possible acclimatation des différents acteurs à long terme.<p>Dès lors, le but du présent travail fut d'évaluer l'effet à long terme de l’élévation de la pCO2 prévue en 2100 sur la physiologie et l’activité érosive d’un oursin clé de certains récifs coralliens, Echinometra mathaei, dans un dispositif artificiel reproduisant l’écosystème corallien.<p>La première étape a été la mise en place un outil expérimental permettant de maintenir à long terme un écosystème de récifs coralliens simplifié en condition contrôle et au pH prévu en 2100 tout en maintenant les autres paramètres physico-chimiques identiques et proches du milieu naturel (y compris dans leurs variations journalières). Le système mis en place est composé de scléractiniaires hermatypiques comme constructeurs de récif, d’oursins (E. mathaei) comme bioérodeurs et brouteurs et un substrat calcaire de récif avec ses communautés d’algues, bactéries, archae, champignons et méiofaune. Les variations journalières de pH et de température reproduisent celles mesurées in situ dans le site de La Saline, Ile de La Réunion, d’où proviennent une partie des organismes. Le pH moyen des aquariums contrôles a été maintenu avec succès à une moyenne de 8,09 ± 0,04, celui des aquariums à pCO2 élevée à 7,63 ± 0,02. L’alcalinité totale du système a pu être maintenue entre 2350 et 2450 µmol.kg-1. <p>L’impact de l’AO prévue en 2100 (pH 7,7) sur la physiologie d’E. mathaei été étudié à court terme (sept semaines). La principale source de nourriture des oursins fut la communauté algale se développant sur le substrat, comme en conditions naturelles. Cette étude a permis de mettre en évidence, à court terme, la capacité de résistance de cet oursin à une AO modérée. En effet, la croissance et le métabolisme ne furent pas affectés significativement. Ces observations ont été associées au maintien de la balance acide-base du fluide extracellulaire, le liquide cœlomique, par accumulation de bicarbonates dans celui-ci.<p>Une même expérience a ensuite été réalisée à long terme. La diminution du pH a été induite progressivement durant six mois jusqu'à atteindre un pH moyen de 7,65 qui fut ensuite maintenu à cette valeur pendant sept mois supplémentaires. La capacité de régulation de la balance acide-base du liquide cœlomique et la résistance d’E. mathaei à l’AO a été confirmée à long terme. Tant la croissance que le métabolisme et les propriétés mécaniques du squelette ne furent pas affectés. Cette résistance apparaît liée aux capacités de régulation acide-base d’E. mathaei, un trait apparemment d’origine génétique. Cette résistance pourrait également dépendre de la quantité et de la qualité de la nourriture disponible (calcaire ou non). Il est suggéré que les ions bicarbonates impliqués dans la régulation acide-base proviendraient en partie de la nourriture. <p>Parallèlement à ces mesures physiologiques, l’activité érosive d’E. mathaei a été mesurée. Les résultats indiquent que le taux de bioérosion triple en conditions acidifiées (pH 7,65). Cette augmentation serait liée à l’augmentation de l'activité de broutage des oursins et à la dissolution biologique du substrat, les propriétés mécaniques des dents des oursins et du squelette des coraux ne semblant pas affectés significativement. Nous suggérons que cette activité érosive accrue pourrait avoir un impact sur l'équilibre dynamique entre bioerosion et bioaccrétion des coraux et pourrait déterminer l'avenir des récifs coralliens où E. mathaei est le principal bioérodeur. Il faut toutefois noter que l’activité érosive de cet oursin est liée à une consommation accrue des macro-algues en compétition avec les coraux et algues corallines, favorisant ainsi ces derniers.<p>Les résultats obtenus, associés à ceux provenant de la littérature, indiquent que les changements globaux pourraient provoquer un changement profond des écosystèmes coralliens tropicaux. En effet, l’ensemble des bioérodeurs principaux étudiés jusqu’à présent semblent résistants aux changements climatiques globaux et montrent une augmentation de leur activité érosive. Dans le cas des récifs ayant déjà à l’heure actuelle une faible calcification nette, l’augmentation de la bioérosion pourrait mener à l’érosion nette et à la réduction puis à la disparition du récif. La prédiction du devenir des récifs coralliens tropicaux à l’échelle planétaire doit toutefois prendre en compte de nombreux paramètres :acclimatation, résistance/sensibilité et interactions des différents acteurs des récifs. D’autres études comparables à celles menées dans le présent travail devraient être mises en place afin de tester ces différents facteurs. Les données obtenues pourraient dès lors être utilisées dans la construction d’un modèle mécanistique permettant de mettre en place localement des mesures de conservation du récif, en complément de l’indispensable réduction massive de l’émission de CO2 atmosphérique à l’échelle mondiale.<p><p><p><p><p> / Doctorat en Sciences / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished