Background: The presence of calcified deposits in the coronary arteries has become established as a marker of coronary atherosclerosis. Design and Setting: Single medical center observational study. Study objective: 1) To determine the sensitivity and specificity of coronary calcium by cinefluoroscopy (CF) and to validate the reliability of CF in the angiographic detection of > 50% coronary artery stenosis. 2) To assess the financial benefit of adding CF-determined coronary calcium into the self-paid executive physical examination items. 3) To evaluate whether an algorithm using CF to assess coronary calcium has potential as an initial cost-effective testing pathway for diagnosis of > 50% coronary artery stenosis. Methods: Between November 1, 2004 and April 25, 2005, 333 patients who underwent angiography for diagnosis of and determine the extent of coronary artery disease were enrolled in the study. All patients received CF to determine presence or absence of calcium in the coronary artery system prior to selective angiography. Sensitivity and specificity were then obtained to confirm CF as a reliable non-invasive test for diagnosing > 50% coronary artery stenosis. Direct cost, total cost and estimated profit were calculated with and without the cost of cardiac catheterization laboratory at Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, which has an average of 475 patients/month who undergo self-paid executive physical examinations. Direct cost, total cost and estimated loss of coronary calcium by electron beam computed tomography (EBCT) were calculated for the acquisition of an EBCT machine by Chang Gung Memorial Hospital. A test model was applied to examine the costs and cost-effectiveness of the following diagnostic modalities: the traditional treadmill exercise (TMET); stress thallium and positron emission tomography (THALLIUM); coronary calcium by EBCT calcium score > 0 and > 168; and, coronary calcium by CF for diagnosis of obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD) as a function of pretest likelihood (i.e., prevalence) of disease. Results: Two hundred fifty three men and 80 women were enrolled in this study (mean age, 63.9+11.4 years; age range, 35-90 years). Sensitivity and specificity of CF in the detection of patients with angiographically coronary artery stenosis >50% were 96% and 86%, respectively. The profit accrued from implementing the CF test at Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, including the cost of the cardiac catheterization laboratory, was NT$329/patient. At 475 patients per month, this test will produce revenue of NT$156,275/month or NT$1,875,300/year. The profit achieved by implementing the CF test at Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, excluding the cost of the cardiac catheterization laboratory was NT$838.7/patient, or NT$398,382.5/month and NT$4,780,590/year. Conversely, implementing the EBCT test will cost Chang Gung Memorial Hospital NT$ 1,124,990/month or NT$ 13,499,880/year. With disease prevalence at < 0.7, CF examination was the most cost-efficient initial diagnostic testing pathway. However, for the group with prevalence at 1.0, the highest group, initial angiography with no prior non-invasive testing was the most cost-effective strategy for diagnosis of obstructive coronary artery disease. Conclusion: 1) Calcium detection with CF is a highly sensitive and moderately specific test, and a simple, inexpensive, and safe technique for identifying CAD. 2) Instituting CF as a screening test for self-paid executive physical examinations would result in considerable profit for the hospital. Conversely, establishing an EBCT program will produce a substantial financial loss. 3) For patients evaluated for obstructive CAD, a test pathway utilizing CF to detect coronary artery calcium as an initial non-invasive test minimized direct costs and maximized cost-effectiveness. Cinefluoroscopy has been neglected as a noninvasive technique for diagnosis of coronary stenosis and is sufficiently promising to warrant increased clinical use.

O transtorno de humor bipolar (THB) é uma condição incapacitante e caracterizada pela presença de episódios de humor associados a alterações de cognição e de comportamento. Indivíduos com diagnóstico de THB estão particularmente propensos a múltiplas condições metabólicas. Em uma parcela dos pacientes acometidos pela doença observa-se a neuroprogressão do quadro, com alterações no campo da neuroimagem e de biomarcadores – citocinas inflamatórias, estresse oxidativo e neurotrofinas. Tais fatores parecem também relacionar-se ao aumento do risco cardiovascular (RCV) observado nessa população, visto que a doença cardiovascular (DCV) constitui a principal causa de morte em pacientes com THB. Mesmo conhecendo tal estatística, há escassez de literatura científica abordando avaliação cardiovascular em pacientes bipolares. Dessa forma, a presente tese tem o objetivo de melhorar o entendimento da associação entre neuroprogressão e doença cardiovascular. Para tal, inicialmente conduzimos uma revisão da literatura englobando variáveis associadas ao estadiamento e à neuroprogressão, sobretudo aspectos que se referem a biomarcadores, neuroimagem, cognição, funcionalidade e resposta ao tratamento. Em seguida, foi realizado estudo clínico com o objetivo de avaliar a prevalência de doença aterosclerótica coronariana através do uso do escore de cálcio coronariano (ECC) em pacientes ambulatoriais bipolares tipo 1. Os pacientes incluídos eram bipolares tipo 1, todos eutímicos e tendo assinado o termo de consentimento. Os escores de cálcio foram adquiridos utilizando um scanner Aquilion 64 CXL (Toshiba Medical Systems) e a quantificação realizada através do método de Agatston. Em nosso estudo verificou-se que pacientes com ECC positivo eram mais velhos (média 55.2 anos; p=0.001) e tinham uma média maior de internações psiquiátricas prévias (media 4.7; p=0.04) quando comparados ao grupo com ECC negativo, além de também haver uma associação positiva entre ECC e número de internações psiquiátricas prévias entre toda a amostra do estudo (p<0.001). Nossos resultados sugerem a associação entre idade e maiores escores coronarianos, além da relação entre cálcio coronariano e número de internacões psiquiátricas prévias. É possível que este achado relacione-se ao fato de que pacientes em estágios mais avançados da doença tenham maior carga inflamatória que, juntamente com os fatores de risco para DCV, justificaria o aumento do RCV, sugerindo um possível link entre neuroprogressão no THB e aterosclerose coronariana acelerada. / Bipolar disorder (BD) is a disabling condition characterized by the presence of mood episodes associated with changes in cognition and behavior. Individuals diagnosed with BD are particularly prone to multiple metabolic conditions. In a portion of the patients affected by the disease the neuroprogression is observed, with alterations in the field of neuroimaging and of biomarkers - inflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress and neurotrophins. These factors also seem to be related to the increased cardiovascular risk (CVR) observed in this population, since cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the main cause of death in patients with BD. Even knowing this statistic, there is a paucity of scientific literature addressing cardiovascular evaluation in bipolar patients. Thus, the present thesis aims to improve the understanding of the association between neuroprogression and cardiovascular disease. To this objective, we initially conducted a literature review encompassing variables associated with staging and neuroprogression, especially aspects that refer to biomarkers, neuroimaging, cognition, functionality and response to treatment. Afterwards, a clinical study was performed to evaluate the prevalence of coronary atherosclerotic disease through the use of coronary calcium score (CCS) in outpatient bipolar type 1 patients. The patients included were diagnosed as BD type 1, all of them euthymic and signed the consent form. Calcium scores were acquired using an Aquilion 64 CXL scanner (Toshiba Medical Systems) and quantification performed using the Agatston method. In our study, patients with CCS positive were older (mean 55.2 years; p = 0.001) and had a higher mean of previous psychiatric hospitalizations (mean 4.7, p = 0.04) when compared to the CCS negative group, and there was also a positive association between CCS and number of previous psychiatric hospitalizations among the entire study sample (p<0.001). Our results suggest the association between age and higher coronary scores, as well as the relationship between coronary calcium and the number of previous psychiatric hospitalizations. It is possible that this finding is related to the fact that patients in more advanced stages of the disease have a higher inflammatory load that, together with the risk factors for CVD, would justify the increase of CVR, suggesting a possible link between neuroprogression in BD and accelerated coronary atherosclerosis.

O transtorno de humor bipolar (THB) é uma condição incapacitante e caracterizada pela presença de episódios de humor associados a alterações de cognição e de comportamento. Indivíduos com diagnóstico de THB estão particularmente propensos a múltiplas condições metabólicas. Em uma parcela dos pacientes acometidos pela doença observa-se a neuroprogressão do quadro, com alterações no campo da neuroimagem e de biomarcadores – citocinas inflamatórias, estresse oxidativo e neurotrofinas. Tais fatores parecem também relacionar-se ao aumento do risco cardiovascular (RCV) observado nessa população, visto que a doença cardiovascular (DCV) constitui a principal causa de morte em pacientes com THB. Mesmo conhecendo tal estatística, há escassez de literatura científica abordando avaliação cardiovascular em pacientes bipolares. Dessa forma, a presente tese tem o objetivo de melhorar o entendimento da associação entre neuroprogressão e doença cardiovascular. Para tal, inicialmente conduzimos uma revisão da literatura englobando variáveis associadas ao estadiamento e à neuroprogressão, sobretudo aspectos que se referem a biomarcadores, neuroimagem, cognição, funcionalidade e resposta ao tratamento. Em seguida, foi realizado estudo clínico com o objetivo de avaliar a prevalência de doença aterosclerótica coronariana através do uso do escore de cálcio coronariano (ECC) em pacientes ambulatoriais bipolares tipo 1. Os pacientes incluídos eram bipolares tipo 1, todos eutímicos e tendo assinado o termo de consentimento. Os escores de cálcio foram adquiridos utilizando um scanner Aquilion 64 CXL (Toshiba Medical Systems) e a quantificação realizada através do método de Agatston. Em nosso estudo verificou-se que pacientes com ECC positivo eram mais velhos (média 55.2 anos; p=0.001) e tinham uma média maior de internações psiquiátricas prévias (media 4.7; p=0.04) quando comparados ao grupo com ECC negativo, além de também haver uma associação positiva entre ECC e número de internações psiquiátricas prévias entre toda a amostra do estudo (p<0.001). Nossos resultados sugerem a associação entre idade e maiores escores coronarianos, além da relação entre cálcio coronariano e número de internacões psiquiátricas prévias. É possível que este achado relacione-se ao fato de que pacientes em estágios mais avançados da doença tenham maior carga inflamatória que, juntamente com os fatores de risco para DCV, justificaria o aumento do RCV, sugerindo um possível link entre neuroprogressão no THB e aterosclerose coronariana acelerada. / Bipolar disorder (BD) is a disabling condition characterized by the presence of mood episodes associated with changes in cognition and behavior. Individuals diagnosed with BD are particularly prone to multiple metabolic conditions. In a portion of the patients affected by the disease the neuroprogression is observed, with alterations in the field of neuroimaging and of biomarkers - inflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress and neurotrophins. These factors also seem to be related to the increased cardiovascular risk (CVR) observed in this population, since cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the main cause of death in patients with BD. Even knowing this statistic, there is a paucity of scientific literature addressing cardiovascular evaluation in bipolar patients. Thus, the present thesis aims to improve the understanding of the association between neuroprogression and cardiovascular disease. To this objective, we initially conducted a literature review encompassing variables associated with staging and neuroprogression, especially aspects that refer to biomarkers, neuroimaging, cognition, functionality and response to treatment. Afterwards, a clinical study was performed to evaluate the prevalence of coronary atherosclerotic disease through the use of coronary calcium score (CCS) in outpatient bipolar type 1 patients. The patients included were diagnosed as BD type 1, all of them euthymic and signed the consent form. Calcium scores were acquired using an Aquilion 64 CXL scanner (Toshiba Medical Systems) and quantification performed using the Agatston method. In our study, patients with CCS positive were older (mean 55.2 years; p = 0.001) and had a higher mean of previous psychiatric hospitalizations (mean 4.7, p = 0.04) when compared to the CCS negative group, and there was also a positive association between CCS and number of previous psychiatric hospitalizations among the entire study sample (p<0.001). Our results suggest the association between age and higher coronary scores, as well as the relationship between coronary calcium and the number of previous psychiatric hospitalizations. It is possible that this finding is related to the fact that patients in more advanced stages of the disease have a higher inflammatory load that, together with the risk factors for CVD, would justify the increase of CVR, suggesting a possible link between neuroprogression in BD and accelerated coronary atherosclerosis.

O transtorno de humor bipolar (THB) é uma condição incapacitante e caracterizada pela presença de episódios de humor associados a alterações de cognição e de comportamento. Indivíduos com diagnóstico de THB estão particularmente propensos a múltiplas condições metabólicas. Em uma parcela dos pacientes acometidos pela doença observa-se a neuroprogressão do quadro, com alterações no campo da neuroimagem e de biomarcadores – citocinas inflamatórias, estresse oxidativo e neurotrofinas. Tais fatores parecem também relacionar-se ao aumento do risco cardiovascular (RCV) observado nessa população, visto que a doença cardiovascular (DCV) constitui a principal causa de morte em pacientes com THB. Mesmo conhecendo tal estatística, há escassez de literatura científica abordando avaliação cardiovascular em pacientes bipolares. Dessa forma, a presente tese tem o objetivo de melhorar o entendimento da associação entre neuroprogressão e doença cardiovascular. Para tal, inicialmente conduzimos uma revisão da literatura englobando variáveis associadas ao estadiamento e à neuroprogressão, sobretudo aspectos que se referem a biomarcadores, neuroimagem, cognição, funcionalidade e resposta ao tratamento. Em seguida, foi realizado estudo clínico com o objetivo de avaliar a prevalência de doença aterosclerótica coronariana através do uso do escore de cálcio coronariano (ECC) em pacientes ambulatoriais bipolares tipo 1. Os pacientes incluídos eram bipolares tipo 1, todos eutímicos e tendo assinado o termo de consentimento. Os escores de cálcio foram adquiridos utilizando um scanner Aquilion 64 CXL (Toshiba Medical Systems) e a quantificação realizada através do método de Agatston. Em nosso estudo verificou-se que pacientes com ECC positivo eram mais velhos (média 55.2 anos; p=0.001) e tinham uma média maior de internações psiquiátricas prévias (media 4.7; p=0.04) quando comparados ao grupo com ECC negativo, além de também haver uma associação positiva entre ECC e número de internações psiquiátricas prévias entre toda a amostra do estudo (p<0.001). Nossos resultados sugerem a associação entre idade e maiores escores coronarianos, além da relação entre cálcio coronariano e número de internacões psiquiátricas prévias. É possível que este achado relacione-se ao fato de que pacientes em estágios mais avançados da doença tenham maior carga inflamatória que, juntamente com os fatores de risco para DCV, justificaria o aumento do RCV, sugerindo um possível link entre neuroprogressão no THB e aterosclerose coronariana acelerada. / Bipolar disorder (BD) is a disabling condition characterized by the presence of mood episodes associated with changes in cognition and behavior. Individuals diagnosed with BD are particularly prone to multiple metabolic conditions. In a portion of the patients affected by the disease the neuroprogression is observed, with alterations in the field of neuroimaging and of biomarkers - inflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress and neurotrophins. These factors also seem to be related to the increased cardiovascular risk (CVR) observed in this population, since cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the main cause of death in patients with BD. Even knowing this statistic, there is a paucity of scientific literature addressing cardiovascular evaluation in bipolar patients. Thus, the present thesis aims to improve the understanding of the association between neuroprogression and cardiovascular disease. To this objective, we initially conducted a literature review encompassing variables associated with staging and neuroprogression, especially aspects that refer to biomarkers, neuroimaging, cognition, functionality and response to treatment. Afterwards, a clinical study was performed to evaluate the prevalence of coronary atherosclerotic disease through the use of coronary calcium score (CCS) in outpatient bipolar type 1 patients. The patients included were diagnosed as BD type 1, all of them euthymic and signed the consent form. Calcium scores were acquired using an Aquilion 64 CXL scanner (Toshiba Medical Systems) and quantification performed using the Agatston method. In our study, patients with CCS positive were older (mean 55.2 years; p = 0.001) and had a higher mean of previous psychiatric hospitalizations (mean 4.7, p = 0.04) when compared to the CCS negative group, and there was also a positive association between CCS and number of previous psychiatric hospitalizations among the entire study sample (p<0.001). Our results suggest the association between age and higher coronary scores, as well as the relationship between coronary calcium and the number of previous psychiatric hospitalizations. It is possible that this finding is related to the fact that patients in more advanced stages of the disease have a higher inflammatory load that, together with the risk factors for CVD, would justify the increase of CVR, suggesting a possible link between neuroprogression in BD and accelerated coronary atherosclerosis.