The cortex can be viewed as a network of functional areas. A cortical area, composed ofneurons forming local connections, interacts with other areas via long distance connections.Each neuron receives multiple inputs and has to integrate the incoming signals. This integrativecapacity is the basis of the computational power of the brain. Our work concentrates onunderstanding the principles that govern the structure of the cortical network i.e. the allocationof neural resources as well as the anatomical segregation between processing steams. Usingretrograde tracer injections we extract two quantitative parameters: (i) the proportion ofSupragranular Labelled Neurons (SLN) identifies the feedforward (FF) or feedback (FB)operation between the source and target area; (ii) the Fraction of Labelled Neurons (FLN)identifies the magnitude of a connection pathway.We have made repeat injections in V1, V2, V4 to investigate the consistency of corticalpathways. This showed that (i) connection weights are consistent between animals; (ii) the listof areas projecting to each injection site is highly reproducible. We find that there are fixedFLN values for each pair of interconnected areas. The FLN values of all the afferent pathwaysto a given target span over a factor of 6 levels of log and although there is some overdispersiontheir variability is not larger than one single level of log meaning that there is a specificconnectivity profile for each area. Futermore the FLN follow a lognormal distribution. Inlognormals the mode is lower than the median and the mean i.e. the majority of pathways haveFLN weaker than the average FLN, meaning that strong projections are rare. If instead thedistribution of FLN was to follow a power law, then high FLN values would have been evenrarer. We found, a regularity in that the strongest input is invariably from within the injectedarea, second strongest are the inputs from areas sharing common borders with the target area.Sub-cortical inputs have a weak FLN, even when they are associated with an importantfunctional role such as the LGN → V1 pathway. We found that projection distance is inverselyrelated to the FLN value and an exponential distance rule operates that constrains short distanceprojections to high FLN and long distance projections to low FLN.We injected a total of 26 cortical areas homogenously distributed across the cortex. Thisrevealed 1232 projection pathways. Roughly 30% of pathways that we reveal have notpreviously been reported in the literature. Our ability to find new connections is due to theimproved tracing and brain segmentation techniques. We scan the whole brain at up to 80μmintervals to detect projection neurons, and this, as discussed in the text, is a major advantage toexisting studies. The weak long distance connections were shown to contract the characteristicpath-length of the graph (number of hops needed to go between any two areas).Our analysis of the graph showed that contrary to current belief the cortical inter-areal networkis dense (i.e. 58% of the connection that could exist do exist). At such a density, models basedon binary features such as small world cannot capture the specificity of the graph. Hence thecortex does not correspond small-world network, with sparse clustered graph possessingempowered by few critical projecitons that ensure short characteristic path-lengths. Furtheranalysis of pathway efficiency showed that the short distance connections of high magnitudeprovide large bandwidth for local connectivity and form a backbone of clustered functionallyrelated areas. This backbone is embedded in a sea of weak connections providing direct linksbetween cortical areas. We refer to this architecture as a tribal-network. We speculate that thesmall scale and high density that characterize the cortico-cortical network is facilitating theemergence of synchrony between cortical areas.

Pas de résumé en français / The cortex can be viewed as a network of functional areas. A cortical area, composed ofneurons forming local connections, interacts with other areas via long distance connections.Each neuron receives multiple inputs and has to integrate the incoming signals. This integrativecapacity is the basis of the computational power of the brain. Our work concentrates onunderstanding the principles that govern the structure of the cortical network i.e. the allocationof neural resources as well as the anatomical segregation between processing steams. Usingretrograde tracer injections we extract two quantitative parameters: (i) the proportion ofSupragranular Labelled Neurons (SLN) identifies the feedforward (FF) or feedback (FB)operation between the source and target area; (ii) the Fraction of Labelled Neurons (FLN)identifies the magnitude of a connection pathway.We have made repeat injections in V1, V2, V4 to investigate the consistency of corticalpathways. This showed that (i) connection weights are consistent between animals; (ii) the listof areas projecting to each injection site is highly reproducible. We find that there are fixedFLN values for each pair of interconnected areas. The FLN values of all the afferent pathwaysto a given target span over a factor of 6 levels of log and although there is some overdispersiontheir variability is not larger than one single level of log meaning that there is a specificconnectivity profile for each area. Futermore the FLN follow a lognormal distribution. Inlognormals the mode is lower than the median and the mean i.e. the majority of pathways haveFLN weaker than the average FLN, meaning that strong projections are rare. If instead thedistribution of FLN was to follow a power law, then high FLN values would have been evenrarer. We found, a regularity in that the strongest input is invariably from within the injectedarea, second strongest are the inputs from areas sharing common borders with the target area.Sub-cortical inputs have a weak FLN, even when they are associated with an importantfunctional role such as the LGN → V1 pathway. We found that projection distance is inverselyrelated to the FLN value and an exponential distance rule operates that constrains short distanceprojections to high FLN and long distance projections to low FLN.We injected a total of 26 cortical areas homogenously distributed across the cortex. Thisrevealed 1232 projection pathways. Roughly 30% of pathways that we reveal have notpreviously been reported in the literature. Our ability to find new connections is due to theimproved tracing and brain segmentation techniques. We scan the whole brain at up to 80μmintervals to detect projection neurons, and this, as discussed in the text, is a major advantage toexisting studies. The weak long distance connections were shown to contract the characteristicpath-length of the graph (number of hops needed to go between any two areas).Our analysis of the graph showed that contrary to current belief the cortical inter-areal networkis dense (i.e. 58% of the connection that could exist do exist). At such a density, models basedon binary features such as small world cannot capture the specificity of the graph. Hence thecortex does not correspond small–world network, with sparse clustered graph possessingempowered by few critical projecitons that ensure short characteristic path-lengths. Furtheranalysis of pathway efficiency showed that the short distance connections of high magnitudeprovide large bandwidth for local connectivity and form a backbone of clustered functionallyrelated areas. This backbone is embedded in a sea of weak connections providing direct linksbetween cortical areas. We refer to this architecture as a tribal–network. We speculate that thesmall scale and high density that characterize the cortico-cortical network is facilitating theemergence of synchrony between cortical areas.

Au cours de cette thèse, j’ai cherché à comprendre comment trois structures impliquées dans la modulation des états vigilance agissaient sur la dynamique du réseau cortical. Les noyaux du thalamus non-spécifique sont impliqués dans le transfert d’informations contextuelles. À l’inverse, les noyaux spécifiques convoient des informations sensorielles vers le néocortex. Ces entrées sensorielles activent fortement les interneurones fast-spiking du cortex qui limite la durée de l’activation du réseau. À l’inverse, mes travaux montrent que les entrées contextuelles entraînent l’activation des interneurones lents, générant une activation prolongée du réseau cortical. D’autre part, je me suis intéressée à la couche VIb du néocortex dont les neurons sont sensibles à deux modulateurs des états de vigilance : l’orexine et à l’acétylcholine. J’ai pu montrer que la couche VIb projette principalement dans les couches corticales infragranulaires où elle pourrait être servir d’amplificateur dépendant de l’orexine des entrées du thalamus non-spécifique. Finalement, j’ai cherché à comprendre si la transmission nicotinique endogène était médiée par une synapse ou par transmission volumique. Pour cela, j’ai comparé les courants nicotinques reçus par les neurones des couches I et VI. Mes travaux mettent en évidence l’existence d’une synapse mixte comprenant des récepteurs α4β2 et α7 dans la couche I et d’une synapse simple comprenant uniquement α4β2 en couche VI. Ces synapses sont activées par la stimulation phasique des neurones cholinergiques. Néanmoins mes résultats suggèrent aussi l’existence de récepteurs α4β2 extra-synaptiques activés par la libération tonique des fibres cholinergiques. / During my PhD, I investigated how three structures involved in the modulation of arousal states act on the dynamic of the cortical network. Nuclei of the non-specific thalamus convey information on environmental and behavioral context, whereas specific nuclei relay sensory information to the neocortex. These sensory inputs activate strongly the fast-spiking interneurons of the neocortex that limits response duration of the network. Conversely, I showed that contextual inputs target mainly the slow adapting interneurons allowing a long-lasting activation of the cortical network. I have also been interesting in the layer VIb of the neocortex whose neurons are sensitive to orexin and acetylcholine, two main modulators of the arousal states. I showed that layer VIb projects mainly onto infragranular cortical layers where its activation should act as an orexin-dependent amplifier of the non-specific thalamic inputs. Finally, I tried to decipher whether the endogenous nicotinic transmission is mediated by a synapse or by volume transmission. To do that, I compared nicotinic currents received by layer I interneurons and layer VI pyramidal cells. I showed that nicotinic transmission is likely to be mediated by a mixed synapse comprising α4β2 and α7 receptors in layer I and a simple α4β2 containing synapse in layer VI. These synapses are activated by a phasic stimulation of the cholinergic fibers. However, my results also suggest that a tonic activation of these fibers recruits extra-synaptic α4β2 receptors in both layer I and VI neurons.

The body of work hereby presented aims at better defining the specific mechanisms underlying cognitive control and flexibility, and to investigate the neural substrates that might support these dynamics. More specifically, the anterior cingulate (ACC), dorsolateral prefrontal (dlPFC) and frontopolar (FPC) cortices have been proposed to play a fundamental role in monitoring and detecting the presence of environmental contingencies that require the recruitment of cognitive control (such as competition between responses in the presence of conflicting information), implementing cognitive control, and supporting higher-order cognitive processing, respectively. This thesis investigates the effects of damage to these regions, and of interference with their activity, on these processes. It also argues for the importance of dissociating possible separate cognitive control components that might differently contribute to behavioural adjustments (such as caution and attention/task-relevant processing), and provides one of the first attempts to quantify them within the parameters of a mathematical model of choice response-time, the Linear Ballistic Accumulator (LBA). The results confirm the crucial role of the dlPFC in modulating behavioural adjustments, as both damage and interference with this region’s activity significantly affect measures of conflict-induced behavioural adaptation. It is hypothesized that dlPFC might drive behavioural adjustments by encoding recent conflict history and/or supporting the automatization of a newly advantageous behavioural strategy during the early stages after a change in conflict levels. When a task does not involve competition between a habit and instructed behaviour, lesions or interference with ACC’s activity do not appear to affect behaviour in a manner that is consistent with the classic conflict-monitoring framework. It is suggested that its role might be better described as a more general monitoring and confirmatory mechanism that evaluates both actual and potential outcomes of an action, in order to proactively guide adjustments away from contextually disadvantageous responses. Finally, lesions to the FPC do not affect abstract-rule integration, but do impair the early stages of acquisition of a new abstract rule, when a previously rewarded rule stops being rewarded, and specifically when acquisition is dependent on self-initiated exploration. This suggests a role for FPC in the evaluation of multiple concurrent options in order to aid the development of new behavioural strategies.

La synesthésie est un phénomène fascinant qui offre une opportunité privilégiée d'étudier chez les sujets sains les bases neurales de l'expérience subjective. Les synesthètes graphème-couleur (1 à 5 % de la population – qui ignorent le plus souvent l'être) associent arbitrairement et systématiquement une couleur spécifique à chaque lettre ou chiffre. Ce travail de thèse se focalise sur ces synesthésies et explore l'implication, dans l'expérience subjective de couleurs synesthésiques, des régions corticales qui sont actives lors de la perception des couleurs ‘réelles'. Dans une étude préalable réalisé par l'équipe d'accueil utilisant l'Imagerie par Résonance Magnétique (IRM) fonctionnelle, une telle implication des ‘aires de la couleur' n'a pas été observée (Hupé et al. 2012). Une analyse statistique ‘classique' (univariée) du traitement des données mesurées était utilisée.Cette thèse vise à déterminer si les couleurs synesthésiques reposent sur les réseaux neuronaux des couleurs réelles en utilisant une technique d'analyse statistique multivariée (MultiVoxel Pattern Analysis – MVPA). A la différence de l'analyse univariée elle se base sur des ensembles de voxels (les pixels en 3D qui composent les images acquises) et prend en compte leurs motifs d'activation correspondant spécifiquement à l'encodage d'une information donnée par le cerveau. Cet encodage est réalisé au niveau neuronal et l'IRMf en donne une quantification non-invasive et indirecte au travers des répercutions hémodynamiques induites par l'activation neuronale. Cette modélisation multivariée des données fait des MVPA une approche particulièrement adaptée à la mesure d'informations encodées finement de manière distribuée. Le but de ce travail est d'explorer son efficacité pour l'étude des synesthésies graphème-couleur où l'analyse classique n'a pas fourni de résultats robustes. En pratique, elle nécessite cependant l'utilisation de protocoles spécifiques, la maîtrise des nombreux paramètres qui influent radicalement sur son fonctionnement et l'utilisation conjointe de l'analyse univariée. Dans une première étape de cette thèse, nous avons évalué différents aspects méthodologiques qu'il est important de maîtriser afin d'obtenir des résultats robustes et une analyse fiable.Ensuite, nous avons comparé le traitement des couleurs réelles et synesthésiques chez deux groupes de 20 synesthètes et non synesthètes. Nous avons trouvé que le traitement des couleurs synesthésiques ne repose pas sur les réseaux neuronaux de traitement de la couleur réelle. Cela peut signifier que les bases neuronales des couleurs synesthésiques ne se situent ni dans les aires visuelles rétinotopiques ni dans les aires de l'expertise visuelle (les aires de la ‘voie ventrale'). Cela peut également signifier que, bien que ces aires soient impliquées, ce ne sont pas les réseaux neuronaux de traitement des couleurs réelles qui sont activés lors de la perception de couleurs synesthésique. D'un point de vue méthodologique, il est possible que les signaux mesurés par l'IRMf ne permettent pas d'observer ce codage partagé. Ces résultats posent donc la question des limites de l'interprétation des signaux mesurés en IRMf très indirectement liés à l'activité neuronale. L'identification des réseaux neuronaux impliqués dans l'expérience subjective des couleurs synesthésiques reste donc une problématique ouverte. / Synesthesia is a fascinating phenomenon that offers the opportunity to study the neural bases of subjective experiences in healthy subjects. Grapheme-color synesthetes (1 to 5 % of the population – who do not know it most of the time) arbitrarily and systematically associate a specific color to letters or digits. This PhD thesis work focuses on this type of synesthesia and explores whether common neural networks are involved both in ‘real' color perception and synesthetic color experience. In a previous study from the host team using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), no implication of ‘color areas' where found (Hupé et al., 2012). A standard (univariate) statistical analysis of the data processing was used.This PhD thesis aims at determining if synesthetic colors involve real color neural networks with the use of a multivariate statistical technique (Multivoxel Pattern Analysis – MVPA). Unlike univariate analysis it uses sets of voxels (the pixels in 3D forming the images) and take into account their patterns of activation linked to the encoding of specific information in the brain. This encoding is performed at the neuronal level and fMRI indirectly and non-invasively quantifies it through hemodynamic variations induced by the neuronal activity. MVPA is a particularly adapted approach to measure fine grained and distributed information encoding. The goal of the thesis is to explore its efficiency for the study of grapheme-color synesthesia for which standard analyses failed. In practice, it requires the use of specific protocols, mastering numerous parameters influencing the results and the joint use of univariate analysis. In the first step of this thesis, we evaluated different methodological aspects to optimize the processing chain in order to obtain robust and reliable results.Then, we compared the neural processing of real colors and synesthetic colors in 2 groups of synesthetes (n=20) and non synesthetes (n=20). We found that synesthetic colors processing does not share common neural networks with real color processing. This suggests that the neural bases of synesthetic colors are not localized in the retinotopic visual areas or in the visual expertise areas (the ‘ventral pathway' areas). This may also suggest that, although those areas are involved, different neural networks are implicated in real color and synesthetic color perception. These results raise the question of the limits of the interpretation of the signal measured by fMRI, indirectly linked to the neuronal activity. The identification of the neural networks involved in the subjective experience of synesthetic colors remains an open issue.

L’excès de synchronisation dans le réseau cortico-sous-cortical est une caractéristique majeure de la maladie de Parkinson. La stimulation cérébrale profonde (DBS) à haute fréquence (HF) des ganglions de la base modifie ces synchronies et améliore significativement les troubles moteurs. Il n’était pas encore connu si l’excès de synchronisation dans le cortex moteur primaire (M1) est présent avant les signes moteurs et si la modulation antidromique des réseaux corticaux via la stimulation HF de la voie hyperdirecte cortico-subthalamique suffit à le désynchroniser. Nous avons étudié la synchronisation des activités spontanées dans M1 de souris juvéniles PINK1 -/-, modèle génétique de Parkinson (PARK6) par imagerie calcique bi-photonique in vitro et l’avons comparée à celle de souris contrôle (P14-P16). Nous avons testé l’impact de la stimulation HF des fibres cortico-subthalamiques (région subthalamique) sur ces synchronies corticales. A un stade précoce, les réseaux M1 présentent un excès de synchronisation et, dans notre modèle de tranche, la DBS HF normalise le patron de synchronisation, plaidant pour un rôle primordial de la modulation antidromique de l’activité corticale via la voie hyperdirecte. En conclusion, nous proposons, grâce à ce modèle génétique progressif, que (1) des activités de réseau pathologiques sont présentes dans M1 bien avant les premiers signes moteurs et (2) que la modulation par voie antidromique de ces réseaux corticaux est un mécanisme essentiel d’action de la DBS HF. Ces résultats montrent qu’une pathologie dégénérative est détectable très tôt dans le développement (neuroarchéologie) mais ne s’exprimer somatiquement que tardivement. / The excess of synchronization of neuronal activities within the cortico-basal ganglia network is a hallmark of the pathophysiology of Parkinson’s disease. High frequency deep brain stimulation (DBS) applied to various basal ganglia nuclei dampens the synchronized activity in the whole network, and brings about a significant motor improvement. However it is not to date established whether an early presymptomatic abnormal pattern of synchronization is present in the primary motor cortex long before motor signs, nor whether its antidromic modulation via the hyperdirect cortico-subthalamic pathway is sufficient to remove its excess of synchronization. To answer these questions we studied the synchronization of spontaneous activities in the primary motor cortex of PINK-/- mice (genetic rodent model of Parkinson’s (PARK6), a progressive model) and compared it with age-matched control mice (P14-16 (wild-type)) by means of two-photon calcium imaging. Secondly, we analyzed in vitro the impact of the high frequency stimulation of cortico-subthalamic fibers on the pattern of synchronization of cortical networks. We show that, (1) at an early stage of development, there is an excess of synchronized activity in primary motor cortical networks and that, (2) antidromic modulation of cortical activity is a key mechanism to account for the normalization of hyper synchronized activity. These results show that a neurodegenerative adult pathology may begin early during development (neuroarcheology) though clinical signs appear late in adulthood. Moreover, antidromic invasion of a network seems to be a key mechanism of deep brain stimulation.

Initialement encodés dans l’hippocampe, les nouveaux souvenirs déclaratifs deviennent progressivement dépendants d’un réseau distribué de neurones corticaux au cours de leur maturation dans le temps. Cependant, les mécanismes cellulaires et moléculaires sous-­‐tendant la consolidation et le stockage à long terme de ces nouveaux souvenirs au sein des réseaux corticaux restent à élucider. Les récepteurs N-­‐méthyl-­‐D-­‐aspartate (RNMDA) jouent un rôle essentiel dans l’induction et la régulation des changements synaptiques sous-­‐tendant les processus mnésiques de type associatifs. Sur la base de leurs propriétés biophysiques respectives, nous avons formulé l’hypothèse que la redistribution synaptique des deux formes principales de sous-­‐unités GluN2 exprimées dans le néocortex adulte (GluN2A and GluN2B), pourrait constituer un mécanisme de régulation de la plasticité synaptique supportant l’intégration et la stabilisation progressive des souvenirs au niveau cortical au cours du processus de consolidation mnésique. En combinant, chez le rat adulte, une approche comportementale, biochimique, pharmacologique et des stratégies innovantes consistant à manipuler le trafic de sous-­‐unités des RNMDA à la surface synaptique, nos résultats mettent en évidence un changement cortical dans la composition synaptique en sous unités GluN2, lequel régule la stabilisation progressive de la mémoire à long terme au sein des réseaux corticaux. Nous avons d'abord établi que les RNMDA contenant la sous-­‐unité GluN2B, via leur interaction spécifique avec une protéine clé de la signalisation synaptique, la CaMKII, sont préférentiellement recrutés lors de la phase d’encodage pour permettre l’allocation des nouveaux souvenirs olfactifs associatifs dans un réseau de neurones corticaux spécifique. Au cours du processus de consolidation, nous avons révélé que la redistribution des RNMDA corticaux contenant les sous-­‐unités GluN2B vers l’extérieur ou l’intérieur de l’espace synaptique suite à l’apprentissage, contrôle respectivement la stabilisation de la mémoire à long terme et son oubli au cours du temps. Enfin, renforcer l’acquisition initiale conduit à une augmentation plus rapide du ratio post-­‐synaptique GluN2A/GluN2B et accélère la cinétique du dialogue hippocampo-­‐cortical, ce qui se traduit par une stabilisation accélérée des souvenirs au sein des réseaux corticaux. Pris dans leur ensemble, nos travaux montrent que le trafic des GluN2B-­‐RNMDA corticaux représente un mécanisme cellulaire majeur conditionnant le devenir des traces mnésiques (i.e. stabilisation versus oubli) et apporte un éclairage nouveau sur la façon dont le cerveau organise les souvenirs récents et anciens. / Initially encoded in the hippocampus, new declarative memories are thought to become progressively dependent on a broadly distributed cortical network as they mature and consolidate over time. Although we have a good understanding of the mechanisms underlying the formation of new memories in the hippocampus, little is known about the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which recently acquired information is transformed into remote memories at the cortical level. The N-­‐methyl-­‐D-­‐aspartate receptor (NMDAR) is widely known to be a key player in many aspects of long-­‐term experience-­‐dependent synaptic changes underlying associative memory processes. Based on their distinct biophysical properties, we postulated that the activity-­‐dependent surface dynamics of the two predominant GluN2 subunits (GluN2A and GluN2B) of NMDARs present in the adult neocortex could provide a metaplastic control of synaptic plasticity supporting the progressive embedding and stabilization of long-­‐lasting associative memories within cortical networks during memory consolidation. By combining, in adult rats, behavioral, biochemical, pharmacological and innovative strategies consisting in manipulating trafficking of NMDAR subunits at the cell membrane, our results identify a cortical switch in the synaptic GluN2-­‐containing NMDAR composition which drives the progressive embedding and stabilization of long-­‐lasting memories within cortical networks. We first established that cortical GluN2B-­‐containing NMDARs and their specific interactions with the synaptic signaling CaMKII protein are preferentially recruited upon encoding of associative olfactory memories to enable neuronal allocation, the process via which a new memory trace is thought to be allocated to a given neuronal network. As these memories are progressively processed and embedded into cortical networks, we observed a learning-­‐induced surface redistribution of cortical GluN2B-­‐containing NMDARs outwards or inwards synapses which respectively drives the progressive stabilization and subsequent forgetting of remote memories over time. Finally, increasing the strength, upon encoding, of the initial memory leads to a faster increase of the cortical GluN2A/GluN2B synaptic ratio and accelerates the kinetics of hippocampal-­‐cortical interactions, which translated into a faster stabilization of memories within cortical networks. Taken together, our results provide evidence that GluN2B-­‐NMDAR surface trafficking controls the fate of remote memories (i.e. stabilization versus forgetting), shedding light on a novel mechanism used by the brain to organize recent and remote memories.

Une prise de décision inadaptée est au centre de nombreuses pathologies neuropsychiatriques, telle que la toxicomanie, mais concerne également certains sujets sains, pour lesquels les gratifications immédiates prévalent sur les conséquences à long terme. Afin de mieux comprendre les bases neuropsychologiques et neurobiologiques de la prise de décision dans un cadre normal et pathologique, les sujets sains inadaptés constituent un modèle prometteur. Une tâche de mesure de la prise de décision chez le rat (le Rat Gambling Task, RGT) a récemment été validée dans l’équipe, très similaire à l’Iowa Gambling Task chez l’homme et permettant de révéler, parmi une population saine de rats, une majorité de sujets performants, et une minorité de non performants. Ces rats persistent à choisir les options immédiates les plus récompensantes, mais associées à de fortes pénalités imprédictibles, entrainant un faible gain final. Nous avons montré que tous ces rats sont inflexibles et moins efficaces dans la qualité du caractère dirigé de l’action. Ils présentent également une motivation accrue pour les récompenses, qui dépend d’une balance complexe coût/bénéfice, étroitement liée à l’effort à fournir, à la palatabilité de la récompense mais pas à la perception de la sensation plaisante ou des besoins métaboliques. Par ailleurs, nous avons montré qu’il n’existe pas de relation directe entre les capacités de mémoire de travail et la prise de décision. Sur le plan neurobiologique, nous avons montré 1) que la qualité du caractère dirigé de l’action dépend d’une balance d’activité PL/SDM et 2) que la prise de décision dans le RGT engage différemment des structures spécifiques selon les performances dans la tâche et la cinétique d’élaboration des choix. Ainsi, le fort recrutement de l’OFC et du Nacc shell serait un marqueur de choix adaptés, alors que celui de PL/SDM serait modulé selon la rapidité à préférer les choix favorables. Le CgA, IL et l’amygdale se désengageraient lorsque les choix sont établis. Les rats non performants présentent une hypoactivité préfrontale associée à une activité persistante de l’amygdale, suggérant un contrôle cognitif préfrontal déficient, couplé à une altération dans les associations liées à la valeur des options, induisant un déficit d’acquisition et de ré-actualisation de la valeur incitative des choix. Nous avons également montré que les différences inter-individuelles dans le RGT sont associées à des différences dans le fonctionnement basal du système monoaminergique. Les rats non performants présentent notamment (1) des métabolismes DA- et 5HT-ergique plus élevés au niveau d’IL, en accord avec l’impulsivité motrice de ces rats, et/ou la moindre qualité du caractère dirigé de l’action et (2) un métabolisme DA-ergique plus élevé au niveau du Nacc core et 5HT-ergique plus faible au niveau du BLA, suggérant une relation étroite avec leur motivation accrue et la qualité des associations liées à la valeur des options. Finalement, ces données sont intéressantes au regard des modifications dans le fonctionnement monoaminergique de base induites par des polymorphismes génétiques, conduisant à une prise de décision inadaptée, ainsi qu’à certaines pathologies psychiatriques. Toutes ces caractéristiques comportementales et neurobiologiques qui forment un ensemble cohérent pourraient correspondre à un endophénotype de troubles mentaux. Les études à l’avenir devront investir la relation directe avec la pathologie, telle que l’addiction, et l’exploration de ces caractéristiques au niveau génétique. / Decision-making is profoundly impaired in several psychiatric disorders such as addiction, but also in some healthy individuals for whom immediate gratifications prevail over long term gain. To better elucidate the neuropsychological and neurobiological bases of good and poor decision making in normal and pathological conditions, healthy poor decision-makers represent a promising model. Recently, a Rat Gambling Task, aimed at measuring decision-making like in the Iowa gambling Task in humans has been validated. It allows the identification, among a normal population of rats, of majority of good decision-makers, and a minority of poor decision-makers that prefer immediate larger reward despite suffering large loses. We demonstrated that all poor decision makers are unflexible and less efficient in goal-directed behavior. They also have a higher motivation for reward that depends on a complex cost/benefice balance, related to the effort to make, to food palatability, but not to the perception of the pleasant feeling or to metabolic needs. Moreover, we demonstrated the absence of relationship between decision making performance and working memory. At the neurobiological level, we demonstrated 1) that efficiency in goal-directed behavior depends on balance of activity between PL and SDM and 2) that decision making depends on specific brain regions, with a level of activity related to the performance, as well as the time course to make choices. Higher OFC and Nacc shell activities are systematically associated with good decision making, whereas the recruitment of PL/SDM is modulated according to the time course to make good choices. CgA, IL and the amygdala would be disengaged when choices are established. Poor decision makers display a prefrontal hypoactivity associated with a persistent involvement of the amygdala, suggesting an alteration in the prefrontal cognitive control, combined with deficits in reward-based associations, leading to an impaired acquisition and/or re-updating of the incentive value of the options. Moreover, we demonstrated that inter-individual differences in the RGT are associated with distinct DA- and 5HT basal functions. Poor decision makers notably displayed (1) high DA- and 5HT-ergic metabolisms in IL, supporting their motor impulsivity and/or lower efficiency in goal-directed behavior and (2) a higher DA-ergic metabolism in the Nacc core, and lower 5HT-ergic in BLA, that could be related to their higher motivation, and the quality of reward-based associations. These data support the relationship between genetic polymorphisms inducing distinct basal monoaminergic functioning, and poor decision making as well as psychiatric disorders. All these cognitive/behavioural and neurobiological characteristics that make a consistent framework could be an endophenotype of mental disorders. Further experiments should examine the direct relationship between poor decision making and psychiatric disorders, such as addiction, and the genetic background related to this specific profile.

擴散權重影像與神經纖維追蹤可以用來探討腦區域之間的連結性，目前透過網路分析方式已經證實腦網路是有小世界的特性，最近也有研究不同受試者或者是病人之間的網路連結量測集中程度，但是擴散權重影像所運算出來的網路參數中間要經過很多步驟，這些中間步驟可能會影響到網路參數。所以有必要對於量測網路參數的受試者間變異性和重複量測重現性進行研究。本研究的目標是利用機率式神經纖維追蹤術量測大腦網路參數的重現性，探討三個會影響計算網路參數的重現性的變因，分別是，路徑定義方式、有無損耗正規化、受試者群體的網路連結篩選機制。變異係數定義（Coefficient of Variance, CV）為標準差除以平均值，分別計算二次量測之間的變異係數（CVwithin），以及受試者之間的變異係數（CVbetween），另外也計算組內相關係數（Intraclass correlation coefficient, ICC）。 掃描30受試者（15男，15女，年齡20~26）。每人掃描二次，並利用機率式神經纖維追蹤術計算網路連結，網路節點則是使用AAL標準模板定義的節點。若使用Wij = 1 – Pij定義長度，三項網路參數（區域效率、全域效率及損耗）重現性皆可接受（CVwithin<1.08%, CVwithin ≤ 10% and ICC > 0.7）。如果使用Wij=1/Pij定義長度，其損耗的CVwithin相較於Wij = 1 – Pij的大。如果長度的全距大，區域效率會不尋常地增加。如果二次掃描分別實施連結篩選，全域效率的CVwithin會較大。 本研究探討不同的網路建構方式將會影響測試內重現度，不同的研究團隊，縱使是採用相同的受試者群體和相同的儀器，所發表出來的網路參數可能會因為纖維追蹤術造成的誤差而不一致，因此實驗必須謹慎的分析資料以及闡述結果。 / Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) with associate tractography can be used to access the connectivity of cortical regions in brain. Network analysis applied to connectivity matrix has demonstrated that brain has small world property. Recent studies also use network analysis to study the variation of concentricity among different group of subjects and patients. However the estimation of network metrics from DTI takes sophisticated processing steps. These intermediate steps may influence the estimation of network metric. It is therefore needed to investigate the potential variation of estimated network metrics using reproducibility test. The goal is to study the reproducibility of network properties derived from diffusion connectivity matrix constructed using probabilistic tractography. The effects of three factors on the reproducibility of network metrics estimation were studied. They are definition of path lengths of network matrix, path with and without cost normalization, the application of threshold to subjects groups. Coefficient of Variation (CV) defined as standard deviation divided by mean is used to test the intra-session (CVwithin) and inter subject (CVbetween) variability. Intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) was also calculated. Images were acquired from 30 healthy participants (15 male, 15 female, aged 20-26 years). Each subject was scanned twice, denoted as N1 and N2. Probabilistic tractography was performed to mapping of cortico-cortical anatomical connections between regions defined from an anatomical atlas. All three of the tested network metrics (local efficiency, global efficiency and cost) were identified as acceptable (CVwithin < 1.08%, CVwithin ≤ 10% and ICC > 0.7) using path length defined as Wij = 1 – Pij. When the path length is defined as Wij = 1/Pij, cost showed higher CVwithin compared to Wij = 1 – Pij. It is unusual that local efficiency increase when the range of path length of edges is large. Global efficiency showed higher CVwithin as threshold is applied to N1 and N2 separately compared to both scans together. The present study revealed that different ways to construct cortical network had an effect on intra-session reproducibility. Our study also showed that despite evaluation of identical subjects using the same MRI system, variation of network metrics may be found by different research groups due to the potential errors from tractography. Replication of the experiment need to be carefully analyzed and interpreted.