Annual bluegrass (Poa annua L.) is the most problematic weed to control in creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.) putting greens.  The objective of this study was to transition a mixed putting green stand of annual bluegrass and creeping bentgrass to a monoculture by using fertilizers and plant growth regulators that selectively inhibit annual bluegrass.  A 25 year old loamy sand rootzone research green, planted with \'Penn-Eagle\' creeping bentgrass, with roughly 45% initial annual bluegrass coverage was utilized.  The biweekly application of ammonium sulfate (4.8 kg ha-1) with treatments of ferrous sulfate at rates of 0, 12.2, 24.4, and 48.8 kg ha-1 and in combination with seaweed extract (12.8 L ha-1) or paclobutrazol (0.37 L ai ha-1 spring and fall; 0.18 L ai ha-1 summer) were applied March to October, 2011 and 2012.  Plots receiving the highest rate of ferrous sulfate resulted in annual bluegrass infestation declines from an early trial amount of 45% to a final average of 20% but also resulted in unacceptable late-summer events of annual bluegrass collapse.  The ferrous sulfate medium rate resulted in a smooth transition from early-trial annual bluegrass infestation of 45% to an end of trial infestation of 20% and had the highest putting green quality.  Previous research has reported that consistent use of paclobutrazol can effectively and safely reduce annual bluegrass infestations.  In this trial annual bluegrass was reduced to 9% infestation after three months of application.  Two unexpected observations from this trial were that ferrous sulfate, applied at medium to high rates, significantly reduced silvery thread moss (Bryum argentum Hedw.) populations and occurrences of dollar spot (Sclerotinia homoeocarpa F. T. Bennett) disease.  Dollar spot control with ferrous sulfate has not previously been reported in the literature, so additional studies were designed to investigate this phenomenon further.  A creeping bentgrass putting green study was conducted to determine if sulfur, iron, or the two combined as ferrous sulfate decreases dollar spot activity.  Ferrous sulfate resulted in the highest turf quality and suppressed S. homoeocarpa infection, even during high disease pressure.  Fe-EDTA suppressed dollar spot infection as well as ferrous sulfate but quality declined to unacceptable levels during the summer, due to Fe-EDTA only.  Sulfur did not affect or increased S. homoeocarpa infection, indicating that a high and frequent foliar rate of iron is responsible for dollar spot control.  An in-vitro study was conducted to determine if agar pH in combination with iron concentrations affects mycelial growth of S. homoeocarpa.  Results from this trial indicated that 5.4 agar pH is an optimal pH for mycelial growth.  The 10 to 100 mg iron kg-1 concentration had little effect on mycelial growth at 5.0 and 5.5 pH, but increased growth at 4.5 and 6.5 pH.  As the iron concentration was increased from 10 to 100 to 1000 mg kg-1, mycelial growth decreased or stopped.  Our final conclusions are that seasonal biweekly foliar applications of the medium rate of ferrous sulfate (24.4 kg ha-1) safely and effectively reduced annual bluegrass infestation out of a creeping bentgrass putting green, while also effectively suppressing silvery thread moss and dollar spot incidence. / Master of Science

Creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.) and velvet bentgrass (Agrostis canina L.) are the principal grass species for golf course putting greens in northern latitudes. Wear injury is a major physical stress that limits the function and quality of turfgrass. Wear evaluations in Agrostis species are limited and no studies have been conducted to evaluate recovery from wear and associated wear mechanisms. To that end, Agrostis species and genotypes were evaluated for wear tolerance and recovery on a golf green built according to USGA specifications. Equal numbers of creeping bentgrass and velvet bentgrass genotypes were tested. Wear was applied using a grooming brush over a 3-year period and plots were visually rated for wear and recovery. As much as 90% of the total variation in Agrostis wear tolerance was due to interspecific variation. Velvet entries provided significantly better wear tolerance than creeping bentgrass. Velvet bentgrass genotypes provided acceptable wear tolerance and full recovery in most years with the exception of SR-7200. None of the creeping bentgrass entries evaluated exhibited acceptable wear tolerance or achieved full recovery. Fourteen Agrostis genotypes, which included equal numbers of creeping and velvet species were selected for further evaluation of anatomical, morphological and physiological characterstics associated with wear tolerance. Eleven characteristics were measured comparing greenhouse grown spaced-plants established from field plots and seed. Characteristics included tiller density, shoot dry weight, shoot water content, relative water content (RWC), leaf width, leaf strength, leaf angle, crown type and leaf cell wall constituents. Siginificant interspecific difference in charactersitics were found. Little difference at the intraspecific level was obserevd especially within creeping bentgrass. Wear tolerant velvet genotypes were associated with a more vertical tiller and leaf angle, greater cell wall content and greater shoot density. Lignocellulose content accounted for as much as 62.8 to 72.3% of the variation in Agrostis wear tolerance while tiller density accounted for as much as 65.9 to 75.8%. Wear tolerance in Agrostis can be improved by giving priority to breeding for greater density and cell wall content with secondary emphasis to breeding for a more upright growth habit (tiller and leaf).

This thesis concerns the numerical simulation of creeping rays and their contribution to high frequency scattering problems. Creeping rays are a type of diffracted rays which are generated at the shadow line of the scatterer and propagate along geodesic paths on the scatterer surface. On a perfectly conducting convex body, they attenuate along their propagation path by tangentially shedding diffracted rays and losing energy. On a concave scatterer, they propagate on the surface and importantly, in the absence of dissipation, experience no attenuation. The study of creeping rays is important in many high frequency problems, such as design of sophisticated and conformal antennas, antenna coupling problems, radar cross section (RCS) computations and control of scattering properties of metallic structures coated with dielectric materials. First, assuming the scatterer surface can be represented by a single parameterization, we propose a new Eulerian formulation for the ray propagation problem by deriving a set of escape partial differential equations in a three-dimensional phase space. The equations are solved on a fixed computational grid using a version of fast marching algorithm. The solution to the equations contain information about all possible creeping rays. This information includes the phase and amplitude of the ray field, which are extracted by a fast post-processing. The advantage of this formulation over the standard Eulerian formulation is that we can compute multivalued solutions corresponding to crossing rays. Moreover, we are able to control the accuracy everywhere on the scatterer surface and suppress the problems with the traditional Lagrangian formulation. To compute all possible creeping rays corresponding to all shadow lines, the algorithm is of computational order O(N3 log N), with N3 being the total number of grid points in the computational phase space domain. This is expensive for computing the wave field for only one shadow line, but if the solutions are sought for many shadow lines (for many illumination angles), the phase space method is more efficient than the standard methods such as ray tracing and methods based on the eikonal equation. Next, we present a modification of the single-patch phase space method to a multiple-patch scheme in order to handle realistic problems containing scatterers with complicated geometries. In such problems, the surface is split into multiple patches where each patch has a well-defined parameterization. The escape equations are solved in each patch, individually. The creeping rays on the scatterer are then computed by connecting all individual solutions through a fast post-processing. We consider an application to mono-static radar cross section problems where creeping rays from all illumination angles must be computed. The numerical results of the fast phase space method are presented. / QC 20101119

A series of studies were initiated to investigate growth responses of Kentucky bluegrass (Poa praetensis L.) and creeping bentgrass (Agrostis palustris Huds.) to foliar applications of two plant growth regulators (PGR) and/or chelated Fe (Na Fe diethylene triamine pentaacetate). Environmental variables considered were N levels, soil moisture regimes, and saline irrigations. The two materials investigated for PGR properties were a commercial product called Roots (a cold-water extract of seaweed and peat humus fortified with "intermediate metabolites" and thiamine) and the systemic fungicide propiconazole, trade name: (Banner) and chemical name: [1- {(2-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-propyl-l,3-dioxolan-2yl}methyl-l H-1,2,4-triazole]. Fortified seaweed extract (FSE) was applied at 9.3 L/ha, and propiconazole (PPC) was applied at 0.93 L a.i/ha. Each was applied alone or in conjunction with chelated Fe at 0.11 kg a.i/ha. Kentucky bluegrass foliage height, root and shoot dry weight, and several foliar nutrients increased following PGR treatments when grown under either limited soil moisture or saline irrigation. Foliar applications of PGR and/or chelated Fe to creeping bentgrass reduced wilting and evapotranspiration, and increased leaf water status, root strength, and shoot dry matter at two levels of N during and after drought stress. / Ph. D.

Annual grassy weeds are problematic in intensively managed turfgrass systems due to a lack of selective and affordable control options. Four projects were conducted from 2020-2023 to evaluate novel techniques for Annual bluegrass (Poa annua L.), goosegrass (Eleusine indica L. Gaertn.), and smooth crabgrass (Digitaria ischaemum Schreb.) control on golf course putting greens or putting green surrounds. Hybrid bermudagrass Cynodon transvaalensis Burtt. Davy. x dactylon L. Pers.) tolerated cumyluron regardless of application timing, endothall when applied during full dormancy, and methiozolin when applied during mid-transition. Methiozolin half-life in the upper 2-cm of 12 hybrid bermudagrass putting greens was approximately 14 days and was prolonged in similar studies by seven orders of magnitude when herbicide was applied to bare ground compared to adjacent Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) turf. In a study conducted in Alabama, California, Florida, and Virginia, methiozolin at labeled use rates applied biweekly controlled smooth crabgrass >80% in creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.) and hybrid bermudagrass turf. Although similar programs also controlled goosegrass, acceptable control required more applications than are allowed on the product label. Targeted application devices (TAD), such as spot sprayers and dabbers that are used for individual plant treatment of escaped weeds, were tested for uniformity of fluid delivery. Fluid output of dabbing devices was highly variable and dependent on reservoir fill level, reservoir air seal, human user, and contact time, but largely independent of peak force exerted during the dabbing event. These studies suggest that new products are available to improve annual grassy weed control in turfgrass systems, but proper application timing and device calibration is important to achieve best results. / Doctor of Philosophy / Annual grasses are difficult to control in "high-end" golf turf because few herbicides can be safely used near greens and key weeds have become resistant to the most common products. Several new products were tested for safety on hybrid bermudagrass greens. Methiozolin (PoaCure) was safe for use after post-dormancy greenup, endothall was safe when used while turf was still dormant, and cumyluron was safe regardless of application timing. The duration of preemergence weed control with methiozolin is reduced as temperatures increase and in turfgrass compared to bare ground systems. Half of the methiozolin product will dissipate in 14 days or less when applied to hybrid bermudagrass putting greens or Kentucky bluegrass lawns in spring. Methiozolin controlled smooth crabgrass for the entire season in several Southeastern states, but goosegrass control was slightly below acceptable levels when the product was used within annual dose restrictions. Applicators, such as dabbers and spot sprayers, that are used to treat individual plants improve turf safety and reduce chemical cost, but these devices had not been previously tested for uniformity of fluid output. Studies found that these devices can vary in output by several orders of magnitude depending on the type of devices used, the person using the device, and duration of contact with the turf as the user presses a dabbing device over a weed. Within-device errors were equally problematic and governed by the amount of downward pressure exerted by the fluid contained in the device reservoir. For every 10% of fluid capacity added, fluid dispense rate increases approximately 33%. When the air seal of the fluid fill cap is broken, fluid output approximately doubles compared to when this seal is maintained because loss of vacuum increases downward force of the fluid column. These studies suggest that new products are available to improve annual grassy weed control in ornamental turf, but proper application timing and device calibration is important to achieve best results.

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Creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.) is a major low-cut cool-season turfgrass used worldwide. The objectives of this research were to: 1) to gain insight into the diurnal fluctuation of N metabolism and effects of cytokinin (CK) and nitrate; 2) to characterize the impacts of N and CK on creeping bentgrass under heat stress; 3) to investigate the simultaneous effects of CK and N on the antioxidant responses of heat stressed creeping bentgrass; and 4) to examine the expression pattern of the major heat shock proteins (HSPs) in creeping bentgrass during different heat stress periods, and then to study the influence of N on the expression pattern of HSPs. The transcript abundance of nitrate reductase (NR), nitrite reductase (NIR), plastidic glutamine synthetase (GS2), ferredoxin-dependent glutamate synthase (Fd-GOGAT), and glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) and N metabolites in shoots were monitored during the day/night cycle (14/8 h). All the measured parameters exhibited clear diurnal changes, except GS2 expression and total protein. Both NR expression and nitrate content in shoots showed a peak after 8.5 h in dark, indicating a coordinated oscillation. Nitrate nutrition increased diurnal variation of nitrate content compared to control and CKHowever, CK shifted the diurnal in vivo NR activity pattern during this period. Grass grown at high N had better turf quality (TQ), higher Fv/Fm, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and chlorophyll concentration at both 15 d and 28 d of heat stress than at low N, except for TQ at 15 d. Shoot NO3-, NH4+, and amino acids increased due to the high N treatment, but not water soluble proteins. High N also induced maximum shoot nitrate reductase activity (NRmax) at 1 d. CK increased NDVI at 15 d and Fv/Fm at 28 d. In addition, grass under 100 µM CK had greatest NRmax at both 1 d and 28 d. Under high N with 100 µM CK, root tZR and iPA were 160% and 97% higher than under low N without CK, respectively. Higher O2- production, H2O2 concentration, and higher malonydialdehyde (MDA) content in roots were observed in grass grown at high N. The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and guaiacol peroxidase (POD) in roots were enhanced by high N at 19, 22, and 24% levels, respectively, relative to low N. Twenty-eight days of heat stress resulted in either the development of new isoforms or enhanced isoform intensities of SOD, APX, and POD in roots compared to the grass responses prior to heat stress. However, no apparent differences were observed among treatments. No CK effects on these antioxidant parameters were found in this experiment. At week seven, grass at medium N had better TQ, NDVI, and Fv/Fm accompanied by lower shoot electrolyte leakage (ShEL) and higher root viability (RV), suggesting better heat resistance. All the investigated HSPs (HSP101, HSP90, HSP70, and sHSPs) were up-regulated by heat stress. Their expression patterns indicated cooperation between different HSPs and that their roles in creeping bentgrass thermotolerance were affected by N level. / Ph. D.

Les glaciers rocheux sont l'une des expressions visibles du pergélisol de montagne et sont à ce titre l'objet d'études nombreuses et variées depuis plus de 20 ans. Deux principaux thèmes sont actuellement étudiés par la communauté scientifique : i) mieux appréhender les mouvements qui affectent les glaciers rocheux ainsi que les mécanismes qui les régissent et évaluer l'impact des changements atmosphériques globaux sur ces formes périglaciaires. Dans ces travaux de thèse nous proposons de contribuer au premier de ces deux thèmes de recherche en utilisant un des outils offerts par la télédétection, déjà utilisé dans d'autres pays pour l'étude des glaciers rocheux : l'interférométrie radar différentielle (D-InSAR). L'interférométrie radar différentielle (D-InSAR) est une méthode basée sur la mesure de la différence de phase entre deux images radar qui couvrent la même zone à différents intervalles de temps et depuis des orbites quasi-similaires. Déjà été utilisée dans d'autres domaines, notamment en glaciologie, volcanologie et sismologie, cette technique crée des interférogrammes, cartes de la déformation du sol en deux dimensions dans la ligne de visée du satellite, qui permettent de détecter et de quantifier un déplacement de quelques centimètres survenu au sol entre deux acquisitions radar. Des recherches en Suisse ont également montré que cette technique pouvait être utilisée pour semi-quantifier les mouvements de glaciers rocheux sur de vastes secteurs et parfois les quantifier (sous réserve de respecter certains critères lors de la création et l'analyse des interférogrammes). Dans ce travail de thèse, nous avons acquis des images radar provenant des satellites ERS (datant de 1991 à 1995) et TerraSAR-X (datant de l'été 2012) grâce à l'ESA (agence spatiale européenne) et au DLR (Deutschen Zentrums für Luft und Raumfahrt, agence spatiale Allemande) dans le but de créer et d'analyser des interférogrammes dans le secteur des Alpes françaises. Nous nous intéressons principalement à la détection des glaciers rocheux. Les archives des satellites ERS-1 et 2 nous ont permis de travailler à l'échelle de l'ensemble des Alpes françaises avec une résolution moyenne (25m en géométrie sol). Les données provenant de TerraSAR-X (TSX) ont permis des analyses plus fines grâce à une meilleure résolution en géométrie sol (10m). Cependant le secteur d'études s'est restreint à la Haute Maurienne/Haute Tarentaise à cause du coût des données et du temps nécessaire à la création et à l'analyse des interférogrammes. Pour les données ERS, nous avons pris en compte l'ensemble des images disponibles au-dessus des Alpes françaises et choisi celles adaptées pour notre étude. Finalement 9 interférogrammes ont été créés. Pour analyser ces données deux méthodes ont été employées : i) une analyse visuelle par des géomorphologues dans un SIG (aidée par des ortho-images et des données topographiques) ; ii) une évaluation de la pertinence des résultats par l'intermédiaire d'une comparaison entre les résultats D-InSAR et des inventaires de glaciers rocheux existants. Finalement une carte de l'ensemble des glaciers rocheux détectés dans les Alpes françaises a été produite. Les données TSX ont été analysées sensiblement de la même manière. Enfin, une troisième étude s'est concentrée sur le cas peu commun du glacier rocheux « déstabilisé » de Pierre Brune (mouvements > 2m/an). Une reconstitution historique des déplacements a été réalisée à partir d'images optiques d'archive et des données GPS ont été acquises durant l'été 2012 et comparées aux données obtenues par D-InSAR. En nous basant sur ces études aux résolutions d'image et aux échelles spatiales variées, nous proposons une discussion sur la pertinence de l'utilisation de la méthode D-InSAR pour du « monitoring » à moyen et long termes des glaciers rocheux mais également sur les atouts et inconvénients de la méthode. / Rockglaciers are one the visual expressions of mountain permafrost and have been the focus of numerous and various studies in the last two decades. Two main topics are studied by the scientific community: i) better understanding the movements of active rockglaciers and the phenomena that generate those movements; ii) assessing impact of global atmospheric change on these periglacial shapes. Here we propose to contribute to the first topic by using remote sensing method of displacement measurements already used in other countries for rockglaciers studies: Differential Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (D-InSAR). D-InSAR is a method of measurement based on the phase difference between two radar images, which represent the same area but at different time intervals. The technique generates interferograms, maps of surface deformation in two-dimensions allowing for the detection and quantification (in centimeters) of variations in distance between the target and the radar between two different data acquisitions. Recent research has shown that the InSAR technique can be used to semi-quantify rockglacier deformation (under the assumption that certain conditions are respected with regard to generating and interpreting the interferograms). In the present thesis, ERS radar images (dating from 1991 to 1995) and TerraSAR-X data (dating from summer 2012) were obtained in courtesy of ESA (European Space Agency) and DLR (Deutschen Zentrums für Luft- und Raumfahrt, German Space Agency) with the aim of generating interferograms. We are interested by the detection of rockglacier movements. The ERS archives allowed us to work at French Alps scale with moderate resolution (25m in ground geometry) whereas TerraSAR-X data have better ground resolution (10m) but our analysis are more local (Haute Maurienne/Haute Tarentaise) due to the cost of the data and the time-consuming nature of the analyzes. With ERS, we selected all archives data and chose the more relevant of them. Finally 9 interferograms were generated. To analyse this amount of data two methods were employed: i) a GIS analysis of interferograms by geomorphologists (helped by ortho-images and topographic data), ii) a comparison between interferograms and existing rockglaciers shape inventory to evaluate the quality of the radar detections. At the end of the analysis a map of the French Alps with all detected rockglacier movements was produced. With TerraSAR-X data, the method of analysis was almost the same. Analyzes focused on the Haute Maurienne/Haute Tarentaise massif. A third scale of analysis is focus on Pierre Brune rockglacier which has been detected on ERS interferograms as destabilized rockglaciers (movement > 2 m/year). Further investigations have been carried out on this site (historical movements reconstitution and GPS acquisitions). Based on these studies with different scales and resolutions, we proposed a discussion about suitability of D-InSAR measurements method for long term rockglaciers monitoring as well as drawbacks and benefits of the method.