The Cross in Changing of Times and its Significance in Ancient Society The cross is the most widespread symbol appearing worldwide right from the prehistoric times. Though being formed of a very simple shape of two intersecting lines the significance is far reaching. This dissertation looks at the cross both as a sign pointing beyond itself and concentrates on the diversity of its visual appearance. It tries to trace back the possible factors preceding Antiquity influencing the formation of the actual shape in that particular period of history. Although for most part the cross is understood in its connection with the Crucifixion of Christ its history is far more complex beginning in pre-Christian era. The biblical texts present more or less mere allusions of the cross itself. Seen typologically the cross may be understood as the element connecting both Old and New Testament creating a sort of a bridge between them. The careful analysis of the Early Christian documents brings several terms used for the same reality. The most significant are - σταυρός with the Latin equivalent crux and ξύλου (wood) with the Latin equivalent lignum. Later on these give a way to a more general term of σημεῖον (sign) and finally to a symbolic expression "σύμβολον σωτηρίας" (sign-symbol of salvation). The early Christian writers...

Marc Chagall est un artiste juif qui a défié l’interdiction mosaïque de représenter la divinité. Il a entre autres réalisé plusieurs tableaux sur le thème de la Crucifixion, un sujet particulièrement délicat pour un artiste attaché à son identité juive et à un art à tendance autobiographique. Ce mémoire examine les conditions qui ont permis l’adoption et le développement, par Chagall, d’une iconographie revisitée d’un important motif chrétien. Parmi les circonstances qui ont facilité l’hybridation culturelle à laquelle se livre Chagall dans ses Crucifixions, il faut signaler la liberté nouvelle, à la fois au niveau des dispositifs figuratifs et du traitement pictural, apportée par le modernisme dans l’approche des grands genres traditionnels dont relève la peinture religieuse. Dans un tout autre registre, le mémoire se penche sur les circonstances historiques exceptionnelles ayant exercé une pression pour que l’expérience tragique des Juifs du XXe siècle trouve à s’exprimer dans des images à portée universelle. / Marc Chagall is a Jewish artist who challenged the Mosaic interdiction to represent the deity. He has among others in the modern period made several paintings on the theme of the Crucifixion, a particularly sensitive issue for an artist attached to his Jewish identity and practising an art with a strong autobiographical component. This dissertation examines the conditions which allowed the adoption and the development, by Chagall, of an important Christian subject whose iconography he freely revisited. Among the circumstances that facilitated the cultural hybridization in which Chagall engaged in his Crucifixion, we must point out the new freedom, both at the level of figurative devices and pictorial treatment, brought by modernism in the approach of major traditional genres to which religious painting belongs. On a quite different register, the dissertation examines the exceptional historic circumstances met by Chagall before and during the execution of the Crucifixions. These circumstances have exerted pressure that allowed the tragic experience of the Jews of the XXth century to find expression in images of universal significance. / Pour respecter les droits d’auteur, la version électronique de ce mémoire a été dépouillée de ses documents visuels et audio‐visuels. La version intégrale du mémoire a été déposée au Service de la gestion des documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal.

This study examines the eschatology of issues related to African folk religion. It argues about the eschatological understanding of time with regard to the afterlife, ancestors and the afterlife, Christ the eschaton and the incarnation of Christ as redeeming of the ancestors. Such a model of local theology can result from a comprehensive reflection based on the Scriptures. As such, this study suggests some principles and praxis that appropriately address mission in the African context. This study also intends to challenge the church in Africa in particular, and cross-cultural workers in general, to redefine their missions and themselves in the face of theological issues, as well as social problems, which occur at all levels of African society. / Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology / Thesis (D. Th. (Missiology))

Violence in traditional “satisfaction” atonement theologies is addressed here. An alternative non-violent view follows in discussion with Weaver / Heim. Weaver outlines a nonviolent Jesus narrative focussing on God’s rule made visible in history. Jesus’ saving death stems not from God but Jesus’ opposing evil powers. For viability violent biblical texts are disregarded. Church history interpretation is nonconventional. Early church is nonviolent. The subsequent Constantinian “fall” births the violent satisfaction model. Weaver’s problematical violence definition receives attention. Girard’s scapegoating philosophy and Jesus’ rescuing humankind from this evil undergirds Heim’s approach. Scapegoating establishes communal peace preventing violence. The bible is antisacrificial giving victims a voice. Jesus becomes a scapegoating victim, yet simultaneously exposes and reverses scapegoating, his death stemming from evil powers not God. Nonviolent atonement influences numerous theological concepts with Incarnational theology demonstrating Jesus’ humanness impacting upon atonement. Four ways to live out transformation established by Jesus’ saving work follow. / School of Humanities / MTH (Systematic Theology)

Violence in traditional “satisfaction” atonement theologies is addressed here. An alternative non-violent view follows in discussion with Weaver / Heim. Weaver outlines a nonviolent Jesus narrative focussing on God’s rule made visible in history. Jesus’ saving death stems not from God but Jesus’ opposing evil powers. For viability violent biblical texts are disregarded. Church history interpretation is nonconventional. Early church is nonviolent. The subsequent Constantinian “fall” births the violent satisfaction model. Weaver’s problematical violence definition receives attention. Girard’s scapegoating philosophy and Jesus’ rescuing humankind from this evil undergirds Heim’s approach. Scapegoating establishes communal peace preventing violence. The bible is antisacrificial giving victims a voice. Jesus becomes a scapegoating victim, yet simultaneously exposes and reverses scapegoating, his death stemming from evil powers not God. Nonviolent atonement influences numerous theological concepts with Incarnational theology demonstrating Jesus’ humanness impacting upon atonement. Four ways to live out transformation established by Jesus’ saving work follow. / School of Humanities / M. Th.(Systematic Theology)

At the incarnation, Jesus Christ assumed the fallen human nature that He found. Having lived a life of perfect obedience in the fallen human flesh that He assumed, He voluntarily and willingly bore the sins of the entire human race and died the second death for, and in our place; thereby paying the penalty for sin. Jesus Christ bore our sins (acts or behaviours) vicariously, while sin as nature or a law residing in the fallen human flesh that He assumed was condemned in that flesh and received eternal destruction on the cross. Thus, on the cross, in Christ, God saved the entire humanity. On the cross, the condemnation that the entire humanity had received by being genetically linked to Adam was reversed in Christ. Thus, the entire human race stands legally justified. But this is a gift, which can either be received or rejected. Therefore, salvation is not automatic. / Philosophy, Practical and Systematic Theology / M. Th. (Systematic Theology)

Thesis (MTh)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The South African society is violently sick to the core regarding gender and sexuality. Shockingly high statistics of gender-based violence and the everyday occurrences of gender injustices and gender discrimination are not unfamiliar to South Africans. All men and women, representing all sexual identities, are affected to a greater or lesser degree. The Christian church, as an influential social institution in the South African context, is often silent on these acts of violence, injustices and discrimination. Some argue that the church is not merely silent, but actively contributes to these injustices and violence by means of its teachings and practices. The church’s inadequate response to such a crisis in society is, however, not surprising in light of especially two factors: firstly, the patriarchal and heteronormative roots of the Christian church that still, up to this day, have an enormous influence on the Christian tradition globally; and secondly, the manner in which the Bible is often misused to direct discourses and opinions regarding gender and sexuality. Ahistorical and selective readings of biblical texts serve as validation of contemporary (and very popular) stereotypical and discriminatory views on gender and sexuality, with little or no recognition of the socio-cultural contexts in which texts originated. Central faith narratives, such as the crucifixion narratives and its portrayals of Jesus of Nazareth as a male, has a great influence on the manner in which gender and sexuality is understood within the Christian church. The Lukan crucifixion narrative portrays Jesus of Nazareth as a hypermasculine character who is able to uphold and even increase his socially-constructed male honour and power throughout the most shaming event of antiquity, namely the Roman crucifixion. Often this type of portrayal of Jesus of Nazareth is preferred in the Christian church, at the cost of the less hypermasculine portrayals that can also rightly be found in the Gospel narratives, and misused to validate essentialist notions of gender and sexuality. This study suggests that a queer reading or a reimagining of specifically the Lukan crucifixion narrative is needed in order to put forward alternative interpretations of the maleness of Jesus of Nazareth, and consequently the manner in which gender and sexuality is popularly understood from a Christian perspective. This is possible if the socio-cultural context of the world behind the narrative, namely the 1st century Mediterranean world and Greco-Roman society, is taken seriously. In this manner the crucifixion narrative might become a narrative that blurs the lines of simplistic gender categories, rather than enforcing it as is often still the case. By offering fresh perspectives on such an influential narrative, the church might be able to engage critically with itself as well as society regarding the disturbingly large amount of injustices, discrimination and violence based on gender and sexuality. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Suid-Afrikaanse samelewing kan tereg as gewelddadiglik siek beskryf word wanneer daar na gender en seksualiteit verwys word. Suid-Afrikaners is nie onbekend met hemelhoë statistieke van gender-gebaseerde geweld, tesame met die alledaagse voorvalle van gender ongeregtigheid en gender diskriminasie nie. Alle mans en vrouens, verteenwoordigend van alle seksuele identiteite, word tot ’n mindere of meerdere mate hierdeur geraak. Die Christelike kerk, wat steeds gereken word as ’n invloedryke sosiale instelling in die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks, se stem is dikwels stil rakende hierdie dade van geweld, ongeregtigheid en diskriminasie. Sommige is van mening dat die kerk nie bloot net stil is hieroor nie, maar dat dit aktief bydra tot hierdie ongeregtighede en geweld deur middel van leringe en praktyke. Die kerk se onvoldoende respons op hierdie krisis in die samelewing is egter nie verrassend nie. Veral twee faktore dra hiertoe by: eerstens, die patriargale en heteronormatiewe fondasies van die Christelike kerk wat tot vandag toe nog ’n enorme invloed uitoefen op die Christelike tradisie wêreldwyd; en tweedens, die manier waarop die Bybel dikwels misbruik word om diskoerse en opinies rakende gender en seksualiteit op baie spesifieke maniere te rig. Die ahistoriese en selektiewe lees van bybelse tekste dien as gepaste bewyse vir hedendaagse (en baie gewilde) stereotipiese en diskriminerende beskouings van gender en seksualiteit, met min of geen erkenning van die sosio-kulturele kontekste waarin dit ontstaan het nie. Sentrale geloofsverhale, soos die kruisigingsverhale en hul voorstellings van Jesus van Nasaret as ’n man, oefen ‘n groot invloed uit op die manier waarop gender en seksualiteit verstaan word binne die Christelike kerk. Die kruisigingsverhaal van die evangelie van Lukas stel Jesus van Nasaret voor as ’n hipermanlike karakter wat sy sosiaal-gekonstrueerde manlike eer en mag kan behou en selfs vermeerder, te midde van een van die meeste beskamende gebeure van die antieke tyd, naamlik die Romeinse kruisiging. Hierdie tipe voorstelling van Jesus van Nasaret geniet dikwels voorkeur in die Christelike kerk, ten koste van minder hipermanlike voorstellings wat met ewe veel reg in die verhale van die Evangelies te vinde is. Hierdie studie stel voor dat ‘n “queer” lees of ’n hervoorstelling van die kruisigingsverhaal van spesifiek die evangelie van Lukas nodig is, ten einde alternatiewe interpretasies van die manlikheid van Jesus van Nasaret daar te stel. Dit is moontlik indien erns gemaak word met die sosio-kulturele konteks agter die verhaal, naamlik die 1ste eeuse Mediterreense wêreld en die Grieks-Romeinse samelewing. Gevolglik sou die gewilde, dog stereotipiese interpretasies van gender en seksualiteit vanuit ’n Christelike perspektief uitgedaag kan word. Op hierdie manier kan die kruisigingsverhaal ’n verhaal word wat simplistiese gender-kategorisering ondermyn, eerder as om dit te bevestig. Deur vars interpretasies van hierdie invloedryke verhaal voor te stel, mag die kerk dalk krities kan omgaan met die kerk self sowel as met die samelewing, rakende die ontstellende hoë voorkoms van ongeregtighede, diskriminisaie en geweld gebaseer op gender en seksualiteit.

This dissertation brings the Ancient Near Eastern practice of the wheel, hanging, impaling, placarding, and crucifixion (WHIPC) into the scholarship of crucifixion, which has been too dominated by the Greek and Roman practice. WHIPC can be defined as the exposure of a body via affixing, by any means, to a structure, wooden or otherwise, for public display (Chapter 2). Linguistic analysis of relevant sources in several languages (including Egyptian hieroglyphics, Sumerian, Hebrew, Hittite, Old Persian, all phases of ancient Greek, and Latin) shows that because of imprecise terminology, any realistic definition of WHIPC must be broad (Chapter 3). Using methodologies and interdisciplinary approaches drawn from art history, archaeology, linguistic analysis, and digital humanities, this work analyzes scattered but abundant evidence to piece together theories about who was crucified, when, how, where, and why. The dissertation proves that WHIPC records, written and visual, were kept for three primary functions: to advertise power, to punish and deter, and to perform magical rituals or fulfill religious obligations. Manifestations of these three functions come through WHIPC in mythology (see especially Chapter 4), trophies (Chapter 5), spectacles, propaganda, political commentary, executions, corrective torture, behavior modification or prevention, donative sacrifices, scapegoat offerings, curses, and healing rituals. WHIPC also served as a mode of human and animal sacrifice (Chapter 6). Regarding the treatment of the body, several examples reveal cultural contexts for nudity and bone-breaking, which often accompanied WHIPC (Chapter 7). In the frequent instances where burial was forbidden a second penalty, played out in the afterlife, was intended. Contrary to some modern assertions, implementation of crucifixion was not limited by gender or status (Chapter 8). WHIPC often occurred along roads or on hills and mountains, or in in liminal spaces such as doorways, cliffs, city gates, and city walls (Chapter 9). From the Sumerians to the Romans, exposing and displaying the bodies consistently functioned as a display of power, punishment and prevention of undesirable behavior, and held religious and magical significance. Exposure punishments have been pervasive and global since the beginning of recorded time, and indeed, this treatment of the body is still practiced today. It seems no culture has escaped this form of physical abuse.

The following thesis investigates the British punk movement of the mid-late seventies and suggests that, by performing acts of imaginative re-identification, we may gain greater insights into both the phenomenon of punk and aspects of Jesus’ life, ministry, and teaching despite their axiomatic and sometimes problematic differences. To do this we explore the power of the sartorial creations that the movement adopted and the way in which they conveyed an oppositional protest message and stance. We explore punk graphics and the way in which they could offer a targeted critique of the nation. We look at punk performances and how they confrontationally engaged with their audiences and what they wanted to elicit in return. We reflect on women in punk, punk in Northern Ireland and the relationship between punk and the black community and the degree to which punk exhibited a counter-cultural attitude to relationships. Concluding our look at punk we investigate how society, the authorities and commerce reacted to the movement, before investigating punk as a trans-historical essence. Having explored punk and established imaginative connections we then revisit aspects of Jesus’ life and consider him as a subversive who negated some of the national symbols of Israel, collided with Jewish national authority and reversed many of the nation’s perspectives. We look at the more confrontational nature of Jesus, his use of symbolic physical statements and his interaction with women, teaching on enemies and the way he related to the outcast. We then conclude by showing the degree to which the present-day church has been absorbed into the surrounding culture and explore two instances in post-war theology where there has been a recovery of the more seditious pattern within Jesus’ life before seeing whether there is anything that the church may learn from imaginatively identifying with punk.

Art of Jesuit Chapels of the Deceased The theme of this work is presentation of Jesuit Chapel of the Deceased in Bohemia in the Baroque period. The main idea of these chapels are the last idea of man and reminder to purgatory. The presence of purgatory was unquestionable for Baroque society and very often presentation in art. Purgatory was place, which gives hope to the Catholics for salvation and it was great occasional for using special symbols and emblems, it is a way how the remind a believer to the idea of the Last Judgment.