Les difficultés dans la mobilité des personnes et des biens constituent l’un des obstacles majeurs à l’amélioration des conditions de vie des populations des pays sous-développés en général et celles de l’Afrique en particulier. Cette situation est particulièrement vraie pour la république du Niger. En observant la carte de l’Afrique on peut déjà imaginer les contraintes que peuvent induire la position géographique du pays pour ses échanges avec l’extérieur. Aussi, autant son isolement externe est criant, autant à l’intérieur du territoire national, l’enclavement est réel et pose un véritable problème de développement. L’étendue du territoire, son enclavement et une situation de fragilité économique constituent les éléments fondamentaux du contexte dans lequel évolue le secteur des transports au Niger. À l’échelle du territoire nigérien, le département de Téra permet d’appréhender les difficultés que pose le dysfonctionnement d’un système de transport et de voir comment la mobilité s’inscrit dans le processus du développement local. La faiblesse de l’offre des services de transport, la vétusté des infrastructures et le difficile accès aux moyens de transport sont des problèmes récurrents pour les populations. Les stratégies des acteurs n’ont eu qu’un impact limité sur l’amélioration de la mobilité dans l’espace départemental. Cet important dysfonctionnement dans la mobilité des personnes et des biens devra être résolu. / Difficulties in people’s mobility and in the flow of goods are one of the major obstacles to better the living conditions of populations in less-developed countries generally speaking, and particularly in Africa. That is true indeed for the Republic of Niger. As far as foreign trade is concerned, one can easily notice the constraints linked to the geographical location of the country, just by looking at the map of Africa. Not only its striking external isolation, but also its land-locked situation focuses a serious development issue. The size of this land-locked state and its economic weakness are the basic context for transportation in Niger. The department of Téra, which represents Niger well, allows understanding malfunctions in the transportation system and how mobility is part of the local development process. The low level of the services of transportation, the ageing infrastructures and the difficult access to means of transport are recurring problems for populations. The different stakeholders’ strategies have had limited impact on the improvement of mobility within the department. Those important malfunctions concerning people’s mobility and the flow of goods must be solved.

South Africa is not well-endowed with indigenous forests and those that remain are known to be degraded and declining at an alarming rate. This constitutes a direct threat to the quality of life of the resource-poor rural households which are directly dependent on the resources indigenous forests offer, as well as to ecological integrity. It is also recognised that the declining tree resources, particularly the indigenous tree species of high value, are increasingly threatened by a number of growing subsistence demands. This emphasises the need to establish, cultivate and conserve high-value tree species. Community forestry is recognised as a viable option for optimising land productivity; reducing pressure on indigenous forests and woodlands; ensuring a sustainable supply of desired tree products and services; and improving the quality of life of the resource-poor rural households. The primary purpose of Community Forestry Development (CFD) in the Hlabisa District is the provision of an information service and of technical support to enhance the livelihoods of rural communities by means of tree-related resources. Community forestry mainly focuses on tree resources that form an integral part of or contribute to rural people’s livelihoods. This includes small-scale growers (woodlots), woodlands and indigenous forests. Community forestry can be defined as tree growing and managed by the people for the people. Community forestry encompasses a wide range of activities which include farm forestry, agroforestry, village planting, woodlots, woodland management and indigenous-forest management by rural people, as well as tree planting in urban and peri-urban areas. Natural forests in South Africa account for less than 1 percent of the total land area. It has been suggested that these natural forests will no longer be able to meet the demand for forest products by 2020. The KwaZulu Department of Agriculture and Forestry embarked on community forestry in 1976 (but only on an ad hoc basis) as a possible solution to this dilemma. Later, the two South African pulp and paper giants, SAPPI and Mondi, started the Project Grow and Khulanathi Schemes respectively. One of the objectives of out-grower schemes was to encourage rural communities to plant trees on their own lands for the economic, social and environmental benefits trees offer. For example, timber could be sold to forestry companies. Financial assistance was offered to these communities to encourage implementation of such schemes. This exercise was aimed at bringing economic activity, capacity- building and community empowerment to the rural areas. The growers would benefit from the financial assistance and the readily available market provided by the company, while the company would be able to satisfy its demand for timber.

When it comes to the foreign language teaching in Sweden, there are, amongst others,  two recommendation direction documents that serve as help and support to achieve an appropriate acquisition and teaching of the foreign language. These documents are the courseplan for foreign languages by GY11 that is established by the Swedish department of education and the Common European Framework of Reference for languages, that’s been written by the European Council. In this essay, we have chosen to analyse wheather or not three Spanish textbooks, Caminando 3, Alegría 3 and Vistas 3, reflect the goals that are established in these two documents. When we analyse the textbooks we are only taking two aspects of language learning into account, these are the cultural aspect and the aspect of oral interaction. In order to complement the investigation we have handed out questionnaires to eight Spanish teachers, that work in a commune in the south of Sweden, where we ask them if they try to implement the goals established by these two documents in their teaching, if they have any knowledge about these documents, and whether they find that these three textbooks reflect these goals or not. The textbook analysis shows that all of the three books accomplish the goals set by the two direction documents when it comes to both aspects. According to our investigation the book that presents the best reflection is Vistas 3, which also is the only book published after the actualisation of the courseplan of GY11.                                                                        However, the majority of the teachers believe that they know the means of both direction documents. Even so, it is clear that the course plan is the document that is best known and that the mayority of the teachers have been educated about its goals, which is the opposite of the results of the same questions concerning the Common European Framework of Reference for languages. In addition, the majority of the teachers say that they do not try to implement the goals of this document in their teaching. Then again the results of the courseplan are different as it says that the majority of the teachers actually try to implement and take notice of this document, and its goals, in their teaching.           When it comes to the questionnaire results of the textbooks, Alegría 3 has the best results. It is considered to accomplish the established goals by both documents and to serve as a functionable tool in the teaching of the two aspects. The majority results of Vistas 3 and Caminando 3 is that they are only considerd to partly accomplish the goals of the documents of directions, and to partually serve as good tools in teaching of the two aspects. To sum up, the questionnaire results of Vistas 3 and the results of the analysis don’t correspond. This might be because of the lack of knowlede that one of the teachers, who wasusing this book, had concerning the documents of direction. In conclusion, it is important to remember that the textbooks shouldn’t be used as the only teaching material to follow the guidelines of the direction documents.