During rhythmic arm cycling soleus H-reflex amplitudes are reduced by modulation of group Ia presynaptic inhibition (Frigon et al, 2004). This reflex suppression is graded with the frequency of arm cycling (Loadman & Zehr 2007; Hundza & Zehr 2009) and 0.8 Hz is the minimum frequency to significantly reduce the soleus H-reflex (Hundza & Zehr 2009). Despite the data on modulation of the soleus H-reflex amplitude induced by rhythmic arm cycling, comparatively little is known about the modulation of stretch reflexes due to remote limb movement. Therefore, the present study was intended to explore the effect of arm cycling on stretch and H-reflex amplitudes in the soleus muscle. In so doing, additional information on the mechanism of action during rhythmic arm cycling would be revealed. Although both reflexes share the same afferent pathway, we hypothesized that stretch reflex amplitudes would be less suppressed by arm cycling because they are less inhibited by presynaptic inhibition (Morita et al, 1998). Failure to reject this hypothesis would add additional strength to the argument that Ia presynaptic inhibition is the mechanism modulating soleus H-reflex amplitude during rhythmic arm cycling. Participants were seated in a customized chair with feet strapped to footplates. Three motor tasks were performed: static control trials and arm cycling at 1 and 2 Hz. Soleus H-reflexes were evoked using single 1 ms pulses of electrical stimulation delivered to the tibial nerve at the popliteal fossa. A constant M-wave and ~6% MVC activation of soleus was maintained across conditions. Stretch reflexes were evoked using a vibratory shaker (ET-126; Labworks Inc). The shaker was placed over the triceps surae tendon and controlled by a custom written LabView program (single sinusoidal pulse at 100Hz). Results demonstrated that rhythmic arm cycling that was effective for conditioning soleus H-reflexes did not show a suppressive effect on the amplitude of the soleus stretch reflex. We suggest this indicates that stretch reflexes are less sensitive to conditioning by rhythmic arm movement, as compared to H-reflexes, due to the relative insensitivity of Ia presynaptic inhibition. / Graduate

By the 1990s a research base had developed articulating the principles of sustainability, but there remained a need for work which analysed the implementation process and the implementability of sustainability in particular policy areas. The Rio UNCED conference (1992) had articulated concerns that all levels of governance should operationalise the principles of sustainability into deliverable actions. Whilst critics (e. g. Galtung et al., 1995) have challenged the legitimacy of these global pronouncements, there was nevertheless an expectation that Local Agenda 21 (LA21) might facilitate transformational change within local governance, with local authorities and other key actors engaging in communityorientated policy making to establish priorities for sustainability. It is within the context of these considerations that this research formulated three main research aims: to establish the role of LA21 processes in operationalising the principles of sustainability at the local level in the UK; exploring the interaction between politicians, local government officers and community representatives. 2) to consider the capacity of the policy area of tourism to operationalise the principles of sustainability at the local level and thus provide evidence of the wider implementability of sustainability principles within local government. 3) to scrutinise the potential of the example area of cycle tourism to provide a model for sustainable tourism at the local level. Adopting a case study research strategy, three example local authority types were identified within the LJK sub-region of Humberside. The research project highlighted a spectrum of corporate responses to sustainability, ranging from non-participation in the LA21 process, to a 'Centralist' approach driven by a strong political commitment, and thirdly a community orientated approach with priorities for sustainability evolving within policy communities at the 'Periphery. Policy 'animateurs' were identified who were committed to the integration of sustainability principles within initiatives for tourism and cycling.

As an increasing proportion of the world’s population travels ever-longer distances between their home and place of work, urban mobility networks have had to cope with this dramatic increase in movement. These networks not only occupy escalating amounts of undeveloped land, but also work to re-shape the public spaces and landscapes of the urban realm. The City of Toronto’s mobility (or increasing lack thereof) has an enormous influence on its culture and urban development; the car and its attendant infrastructures heavily govern the city’s growth by supporting urban sprawl. In order to redevelop public space, equalize access to mobility, and improve the way we move through the city, a new system of infrastructure is required; one that can negotiate through an asphalt-dominated landscape while creating a sustainable transport alternative. This thesis proposes new mobility networks as strategies of intensification through a repositioning of the bicycle and by prioritizing its supporting infrastructure along existing underutilized service lands in the City of Toronto. By further developing both the rail and hydro corridors as a city-wide network of mobility paths, and eventually phasing them into a series of linear parkways, distant parts of the city would become accessible for long-haul trips. The second design component is a series of bicycle hubs located at, and tailored to, strategic locations throughout the city’s existing corridors and transit lines. These new civic amenities have the potential to enrich urban placemaking, while acting as social centres that anchor newly connected communities.

Amongst transportation professionals there is a motivation to increase the use of active transportation to achieve contemporary transportation engineering goals. This research describes a year-long GPS cycling study conducted in partnership by the University of Waterloo and the Region of Waterloo Ontario. Data were collected from 415 self-selected cyclists, using two distinct data collection mechanisms. Data collected from GPS units revealed trip origins, destinations, and routes; the data also contain time stamps from which travel speeds can be computed. An online survey was administered to gather cyclists’ socio-economic information and household composition. The survey also collected responses to questions regarding preferences for cycling infrastructure and overall satisfaction. The trip data allow for several important conclusions. The average trip length observed in the study was 6.96 kilometers; utilitarian trips (i.e. non-recreational) constitute 92% of the observed trips. This suggests that cyclists are able to complete daily activities – commuting, shopping, etc. – with less overall travel than the general population. The trip data also suggests relationships between the propensity to cycle and land use patterns. Strong positive correlations are demonstrated between higher land use density and the number of cycling trips; moreover, cycling trips tend to be more direct in areas with traditional neighbourhood design. The time at which the trips were taken – predominantly the am or pm peaks – suggest that the cyclists’ mode choice results in lowering peak demand and, therefore, reducing regional congestion. Fewer and typically shorter cycling trips were observed during winter months, presumably as a result of less favorable climate. Participants in the study are typically higher-than-average earners and mirror the overall regional age distribution, although seniors and children were underrepresented. The cyclists in the study are predominantly male which may reflect an overall higher propensity to cycle amongst men compared to women. Cyclists’ households are more likely than the general population to own fewer cars than licensed drivers which may be interpreted as a cost saving opportunities for these households. Finally, the survey data suggests that the single largest impediment to increased cycling is a perception of poor safety for cyclists, particularly in terms of interactions with automobiles.

The design of bicycle frames has remained fairly static for the majority of the past century, but recent increases in demand for high performance bicycles has created an accelerated design cycle that requires innovation. In order to design new frames with confidence in their capacity to withstand the rigors of use, reliable data about the nature of that use is needed, but this data is not currently available. The purpose of this research was to develop and implement a system that is capable of interpolating loads applied to a bicycle frame during vigorous riding for the purpose of improving the quality of information available to bicycle designers. The system that was developed employed finite element modeling to locate strain gauges on a frame and a least-squares approximate solution of strain readings to interpolate the applied loads. At its best, the system is capable of resolving loads with better than a 2% error. This system is limited, though, as it can only be applied in cases where the frame has a significant strain reaction to a load case but does not have a significant change in geometry during loading. This system was implemented on a cross-country mountain bicycle frame for the purposes of determining a rider weight to load relationship and to compare the standardized test procedures for bicycles to the loads experienced in the field. It was confirmed that there is a linear relationship between rider weight and load on the frame for all component forces except that applied to the bottom bracket, out of plane with the bicycle frame. It was also found that the British Standards fatigue testing practices, which are used internationally to assess bicycle safety, are inconsistent in their representation of realistic riding conditions when compared with the results from the field tests. Some loads appear conservative, some offer a very large factor of safety, and two are not represented at all. In particular, the moment about the bottom bracket due to pedaling and the load on the seat from the rider appear to consistently exceed the standardized test requirements while the moment caused by fork splay seems much smaller than the tests demand.

Soil microbial communities can be characterized by community structure and function (community composition) across a spectrum of spatial scales, and variation in soil microbial composition has been associated with a number of environmental gradients. This study investigates the structure and function of soil microbial communities under mature, undisturbed forested sites across a range of regional climates in British Columbia and Alberta, and also examines the variation in community composition within sites. Phospholipid fatty acid analysis was used to investigate the structure of soil microbial communities and total soil microbial biomass at each site. Extra-cellular enzyme assays established the functional potential of the soil microbial community at each site. Multivariate analysis of the data showed that the soil microbial communities under different forest types did significantly separate along the regional climate gradient by both community structure and function, despite high local variation in the communities. Soil moisture content and soil organic matter concentration consistently exhibited the strongest relationship with microbial community characteristics, although the functional and structural responses to the external drivers were different. Microbial community function and structure also changed with soil depth but not with time of sampling. Microbial community function was related to the regional annual average precipitation gradient. Most of the locations exhibited unique microbial community functional profiles in their soil layers; however the enzyme activities in the samples from the driest (Ponderosa Pine) and wettest (Mountain Hemlock) locations were notably different from each other and from those of the other locations, especially in the organic layers. The moist maritime-influenced Coastal Western Hemlock (CWH) forest exhibited microbial community structural characteristics which were unique from those of the other forest locations. The higher abundance of bacteria relative to fungi in the CWH forest soils may be related to the significantly higher available nitrogen concentrations at this site.

Introduction: Several authors have demonstrated that, while cycling at a constant power output, EMG activity from the gastrocnemius increases systematically with increases in pedaling cadence, but that soleus EMG remains unchanged (Marsh & Martin 1995; Sanderson et al. 2006). The reason for this differential effect of cadence on the muscles of the triceps surae is unclear. Whatever factor(s) are responsible, it is assumed that, as they vary, the differential electromyographic response will vary accordingly. Decreasing the seat height has been shown to alter the kinematic characteristics of cycling (Too, 1990). The first objective of this study was to examine the effect of a decrease in seat height on the kinematics and muscle activation of the lower limb. The second objective was to investigate the effect of seat height on the relationship between cadence and triceps surae activation and, in doing so, to reveal possible factors mediating the response to changes in cadence. Methods: Participants pedaled a cycle ergometer at 200 Watts for five minutes at each of five cadences (50, 65, 80, 95, 110 rpm) and at each of two seat heights (100% and 90% trochanteric height). Kinematics of the lower limb were calculated from digitized video records of reflective markers placed on the skin over seven bony landmarks. EMG data were collected from eight lower-limb muscles. Results: The most notable findings were 1) that activation of the gastrocnemii was less in the low-seat condition and, contrary to what the findings of past research would suggest, was not associated with changes in muscle length; 2) that the medial and lateral gastrocnemii responded differently to changes in cadence at each seat height, suggesting that the functional roles of these muscles in cycling differ; 3) that several factors, including muscle length, muscle velocity, ankle angle and the direction of muscle action, were not responsible for the differential effect of cadence on activation of the soleus and gastrocnemius. Future research should investigate afferent feedback from proprioceptors in the knee joint and knee extensor muscles as possible factors mediating the effect.

This research project focussed on discarded clothing and textiles, as signifiers for the lowest exchange value in the fashion system, and sought methods to add value by up-cycling1 into one of a kind fashion garments. Opportunities to add value were investigated with three main ideas emerging which include up-cycling the visual appearance of the garment or textiles through restyling, user interaction, and creating a narrative for the garment. The practice focussed on developing methods to incorporate these concepts as a way of extending the life of low value textiles into items that could be re-introduced into the fashion cycle2. Walker (2008) suggests that by conveying the story of a product to the consumer, the perception of value increased, and opportunities to explore this concept were investigated during the project. Experimentation with a variety of materials and techniques resulted in developing a method to re-fabricate3 threadbare and stained garments into a new material. User participation4 was investigated as a way to ‘add value,’ as it was hoped that by enabling the user to interact with the design they would value the item more. Exploring this concept led to the development of a range of garments and garment kits that enabled the user to learn techniques and make garments using discarded textiles and clothing. The garments and kits were developed using methods and techniques that could be easily mastered and used materials that would be readily available to the user. The development of the garment kits reframed the user as a designer/maker, which is sometimes referred to as participatory design,5 and Followed Fletcher’s (2008) directive that for practical reasons, the methods need to be low tech and inexpensive. A group of research participants trialled the garment kits, made their own garment and provided feedback, which informed the final phase of the project and the development of revised kits and garments. The project suggests potential opportunities for the fashion designer may exist by focussing on the use of existing resources and heightened user connectivity in the design of garments.

This project explores design considerations and processes involved in the development of sports performance clothing specifically aimed at city cycling commuters. Research with a focus on smart clothing and electronic integration was used to form a technical framework in which the requirements of the end user were addressed. The result being the creation of a wearable electronic jacket containing a lighting system aimed at improving safety and comfort aspects affecting cycle commuters. The project methodology was essentially practice based with a strong experimental approach linked to the physical testing and refinement of electronic and clothing integration. Design aesthetics were equally important and are presented as a visual record linked to the use of computer related technologies which have influenced the design planning and processes of the project.

This research project focussed on discarded clothing and textiles, as signifiers for the lowest exchange value in the fashion system, and sought methods to add value by up-cycling1 into one of a kind fashion garments. Opportunities to add value were investigated with three main ideas emerging which include up-cycling the visual appearance of the garment or textiles through restyling, user interaction, and creating a narrative for the garment. The practice focussed on developing methods to incorporate these concepts as a way of extending the life of low value textiles into items that could be re-introduced into the fashion cycle2. Walker (2008) suggests that by conveying the story of a product to the consumer, the perception of value increased, and opportunities to explore this concept were investigated during the project. Experimentation with a variety of materials and techniques resulted in developing a method to re-fabricate3 threadbare and stained garments into a new material. User participation4 was investigated as a way to ‘add value,’ as it was hoped that by enabling the user to interact with the design they would value the item more. Exploring this concept led to the development of a range of garments and garment kits that enabled the user to learn techniques and make garments using discarded textiles and clothing. The garments and kits were developed using methods and techniques that could be easily mastered and used materials that would be readily available to the user. The development of the garment kits reframed the user as a designer/maker, which is sometimes referred to as participatory design,5 and Followed Fletcher’s (2008) directive that for practical reasons, the methods need to be low tech and inexpensive. A group of research participants trialled the garment kits, made their own garment and provided feedback, which informed the final phase of the project and the development of revised kits and garments. The project suggests potential opportunities for the fashion designer may exist by focussing on the use of existing resources and heightened user connectivity in the design of garments.